This lesson talks about the Behaviorism from the perspective of Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. Pavlov and Thorndike's theory on Behaviorism are presented in this presentation.
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
Various views on Human Learning - All 5 Theories Merged.pdfSamruddhi Chepe
Module 2:Various views on human learning (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to -
- compare various views on human learning
- consider various roles of learner and teacher for planning of various learning
situations
Contents
1. Views on human learning with reference to (i) Concepts and principles of each view and
their applicability in different learning situations (ii) Relevance and applicability of
various theories of learning for different kinds of learning situations(iii) Role of learner
and teacher in various learning situations (15)
Behaviourist (conditioning by Pavlov and Skinner in brief),
Cognitivist ( views of Bruner and Ausubel)
Course 4
Learning and Teaching
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 23
Information-processing view(Atkinson Shifrin)
Humanist( Carl Rogers)
Social-constructivist ( Views of Piaget and Lev Vygotski)
This lesson talks about the Behaviorism from the perspective of Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. Pavlov and Thorndike's theory on Behaviorism are presented in this presentation.
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
Various views on Human Learning - All 5 Theories Merged.pdfSamruddhi Chepe
Module 2:Various views on human learning (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to -
- compare various views on human learning
- consider various roles of learner and teacher for planning of various learning
situations
Contents
1. Views on human learning with reference to (i) Concepts and principles of each view and
their applicability in different learning situations (ii) Relevance and applicability of
various theories of learning for different kinds of learning situations(iii) Role of learner
and teacher in various learning situations (15)
Behaviourist (conditioning by Pavlov and Skinner in brief),
Cognitivist ( views of Bruner and Ausubel)
Course 4
Learning and Teaching
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 23
Information-processing view(Atkinson Shifrin)
Humanist( Carl Rogers)
Social-constructivist ( Views of Piaget and Lev Vygotski)
Behaviorist Theory by Pavlov and Skinner.pptxSamruddhi Chepe
Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. Pavlov's theory of behaviorism is rooted in the idea that behavior is the result of conditioning. He believed that behavior is learned through the process of classical conditioning, where behavior is shaped through the association of stimuli in the environment. Pavlov's major legacy to behavior therapy was his discovery of "experimental neuroses", Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.[2][3][4][5] Considered the father of Behaviorism, he was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.[6]
Considering free will to be an illusion, Skinner saw human action as dependent on consequences of previous actions, a theory he would articulate as the principle of reinforcement: If the consequences to an action are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger.[7]
Skinner developed behavior analysis, especially the philosophy of radical behaviorism,[8] and founded the experimental analysis of behavior, a school of experimental research psychology. He also used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, considering the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength. To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner box).
All things should be looked at from the perspective of behaviour.
And it doesn’t matter what is going on in the mind, it just matters what the behaviour
So there is no difference in the behaviourist mind between external behaviour and internal thoughts.
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Lee Thorndike
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
CH. 4 LEARNING, MEMORY, AND INTELLIGENCELearning is definedMaximaSheffield592
CH. 4 LEARNING, MEMORY, AND INTELLIGENCE
Learning is defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior that result from experience but are not caused by fatigue, maturation, drugs, injury, or disease.
Memory is simply a process of encoding, storing, and retrieving pieces of information.
Everything we are, in our conscious experience, is dependent upon memory. Without memory we would live in a constant state of rediscovery, whereby every instance would be newly learned. Learning and memory are also intricately connected to intelligence.
Intelligence is the overall capacity to think and act logically and rationally within one’s environment.
What is Learning: Approaches to Learning
Learning, psychology tells us, consists of changes in behavior. But not all changes in behavior are examples of learning.
In the most brief explanation, learning is a change in behavior (or the potential for behavior) as a result of experience.
Learning:
A process resulting in a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavioral potential and is based on experience.
Learning is difficult to assess because it cannot be observed directly; instead, inferences are made about learning based on changes in performance.
Learning is not easily separated from other major topics in psychology. Changes in behavior are centrally involved in many aspects of psychology, including motivation, personality, development, and even mental disorders.
Cognitive Theories:
Theories that look at intellectual processes such as those involved in thinking, problem solving, imagining, and anticipating.
Behavioristic Theories:
Theories concerned with objective evidence of behavior rather than with consciousness and mind. Sometimes these are referred to as S-R or associationistic theories because they deal mainly with associations between stimuli and responses (muscular, glandular, or mental reaction to a stimulus).
Stimulus:
Any change in the physical environment capable of exciting a sense organ. Stimuli can also be internal events such as glandular secretions or even thoughts.
Behavioristic Approaches:
Classical Conditioning and Pavlov’s Experiments
An American named Edwin Twitmyer was actually the first person known to have reported the principle of classical conditioning. About a year later, a Russian by the name of Ivan Pavlov presented essentially the same findings—only he had used dogs as subjects whereas Twitmyer had used humans.
Classical Conditioning, sometimes called learning through stimulus substitution, is learning through stimulus substitution as a result of repeated pairings of an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus
To clarify the laws of classical conditioning, Pavlov devised a series of experiments (Pavlov, 1927). In the best known of these, a dog is placed in a harness-like contraption. The apparatus allows food powder to be inserted directly into the dog’s mouth or to be dropped into a dish in front of the dog.
The salivation that ...
Behaviorist Theory by Pavlov and Skinner.pptxSamruddhi Chepe
Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. Pavlov's theory of behaviorism is rooted in the idea that behavior is the result of conditioning. He believed that behavior is learned through the process of classical conditioning, where behavior is shaped through the association of stimuli in the environment. Pavlov's major legacy to behavior therapy was his discovery of "experimental neuroses", Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.[2][3][4][5] Considered the father of Behaviorism, he was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.[6]
Considering free will to be an illusion, Skinner saw human action as dependent on consequences of previous actions, a theory he would articulate as the principle of reinforcement: If the consequences to an action are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger.[7]
Skinner developed behavior analysis, especially the philosophy of radical behaviorism,[8] and founded the experimental analysis of behavior, a school of experimental research psychology. He also used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, considering the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength. To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner box).
All things should be looked at from the perspective of behaviour.
And it doesn’t matter what is going on in the mind, it just matters what the behaviour
So there is no difference in the behaviourist mind between external behaviour and internal thoughts.
Ivan Pavlov
Edward Lee Thorndike
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
CH. 4 LEARNING, MEMORY, AND INTELLIGENCELearning is definedMaximaSheffield592
CH. 4 LEARNING, MEMORY, AND INTELLIGENCE
Learning is defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior that result from experience but are not caused by fatigue, maturation, drugs, injury, or disease.
Memory is simply a process of encoding, storing, and retrieving pieces of information.
Everything we are, in our conscious experience, is dependent upon memory. Without memory we would live in a constant state of rediscovery, whereby every instance would be newly learned. Learning and memory are also intricately connected to intelligence.
Intelligence is the overall capacity to think and act logically and rationally within one’s environment.
What is Learning: Approaches to Learning
Learning, psychology tells us, consists of changes in behavior. But not all changes in behavior are examples of learning.
In the most brief explanation, learning is a change in behavior (or the potential for behavior) as a result of experience.
Learning:
A process resulting in a relatively consistent change in behavior or behavioral potential and is based on experience.
Learning is difficult to assess because it cannot be observed directly; instead, inferences are made about learning based on changes in performance.
Learning is not easily separated from other major topics in psychology. Changes in behavior are centrally involved in many aspects of psychology, including motivation, personality, development, and even mental disorders.
Cognitive Theories:
Theories that look at intellectual processes such as those involved in thinking, problem solving, imagining, and anticipating.
Behavioristic Theories:
Theories concerned with objective evidence of behavior rather than with consciousness and mind. Sometimes these are referred to as S-R or associationistic theories because they deal mainly with associations between stimuli and responses (muscular, glandular, or mental reaction to a stimulus).
Stimulus:
Any change in the physical environment capable of exciting a sense organ. Stimuli can also be internal events such as glandular secretions or even thoughts.
Behavioristic Approaches:
Classical Conditioning and Pavlov’s Experiments
An American named Edwin Twitmyer was actually the first person known to have reported the principle of classical conditioning. About a year later, a Russian by the name of Ivan Pavlov presented essentially the same findings—only he had used dogs as subjects whereas Twitmyer had used humans.
Classical Conditioning, sometimes called learning through stimulus substitution, is learning through stimulus substitution as a result of repeated pairings of an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus
To clarify the laws of classical conditioning, Pavlov devised a series of experiments (Pavlov, 1927). In the best known of these, a dog is placed in a harness-like contraption. The apparatus allows food powder to be inserted directly into the dog’s mouth or to be dropped into a dish in front of the dog.
The salivation that ...
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. DEFINE
and describe how
behaviorism can be applied
in educational settings
behaviorism and explain
its basic principles
with other learning theories
to enhance educational
practices.
1.
3.
2.
4.
Learning Outcomes
EVALUATE
the strengths and
limitations of behaviorism
IDENTIFY
INTEGRATE
3. PART I. INTRODUCTION
A. Definition of behaviorism
B. Brief overview of the history
of behaviorism
4. DEFINITION
is an idea or theory
a way of understanding how people and
animals behave or act
helps us learn how our actions can be
influenced by the things that happen
around us.
when we do something and it feels good
or gets rewarded, we are more likely to
do it again
Behaviorism is:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. British Empiricism 17th and 18th centuries
Influence of philosophers such as:
John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume
BRIEF HISTORY
6. BRIEF HISTORY
Early influences Associationism principles
-a psychological principle that suggests that our
minds connect ideas and experiences together
based on their associations or connections. It is
based on the idea that our thoughts, memories,
and knowledge are formed through the linking or
associating of different elements in our
environment or experiences.
7. PART II. KEY FOUNDERS
A. Ivan Pavlov (conditioned
reflexes)
B. John B. Watson (stimulus-
response)
C. B.F. Skinner (reinforcement
and punishment)
D. Edward L. Thorndike
8. Russian Psychologist
well known for Classical Conditioning
(Stimulus Substitution)
most renowned experiment "Pavlov's
dogs", meat, and a bell
other findings: stimulus
generalization, extinction,
spontaneous recovery, discrimination,
higher-order conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
9. Detailed explanation of the experiment and its stages:
Pre-Conditioning Phase: Dogs are presented with food
(unconditioned stimulus) and naturally salivate
(unconditioned response).
Conditioning Phase: Dogs are exposed to a neutral stimulus
(such as a bell) followed by the presentation of food
repeatedly.
Post-Conditioning Phase: Dogs start associating the neutral
stimulus (bell) with the food and salivate (conditioned
response) upon hearing the bell alone.
10. Once the dog has learned to
salivate to the sound of the
bell, it will salivate at other
similar sounds.
Stimulus Generalization
If the pairing of the bell with
the food has stopped,
salivating eventually cease
in response to the bell.
Extinction
11. Extinguished responses can be "recovered an elapsed time, but will
soon extinguish again if the dog is presented with food.
Spontaneous Recovery
The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli)
and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and
which would not.
Discrimination
Another unconditioned stimulus, such as the light may be flashed at
the same time that the bell is rung. The dog will also salivate w/o bell.
Higher-order conditioning
12. American psychologist
interest in animal studies, then to human
behavior research
Little Albert Experiment
...humans are born with a few reflexes and
the emotional reactions of love and and
rage
all other behavior is learned through
stimulus-response associations through
conditioning
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
13. Description of the experiment and its purpose:
The Little Albert experiment was conducted
by John B. Watson and his assistant, Rosalie
Rayner, in 1920.
The purpose of the experiment was to
investigate the process of fear conditioning
and the formation of emotional responses
through classical conditioning.
14. Impact of the experiment on behaviorism
The experiment provided empirical evidence for the
process of fear conditioning, showing that emotional
responses could be learned through associative processes.
Little Albert's fear response generalized to other similar
stimuli, suggesting that fear responses can extend beyond
the initial conditioned stimulus.
The experiment supported the behaviorist notion that
behavior is learned through environmental stimuli and
associations, rather than being solely determined by innate
factors.
15. American psychologist
theory on observable behavior
studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors
used in operating the environment)
Operant conditioning, learning is a result of
change in overt behavior
Changes in behavior are the result of person's
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment
S-R pattern is reinforced, s/he conditioned to
respond
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
16. Skinner's S-R Theory
Reinforcement
Reinforcer (positive and negative)
Punishment
Extinction/Non-reinforcement
Shaping of behavior
Behavioral Chaining
Reinforcement schedules (fixed and variable
interval schedules; fixed and variable ratio
schedules)
17. American Psychologist
original S-R Framework of behavioral psychology
Thorndike's theory of learning as formulated in
the connectionist model
first use the term Educational Psychology
"such associations or habits becomes
strengthened or weakened by nature and
frequency of the S-R pairings
Three primary laws: effect, exercise, and
readiness.
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)
18. positive outcomes reinforce behavior, increasing the likelihood of its
recurrence, while negative outcomes weaken behavior, decreasing its occurrence.
Law of Effect
connections between a stimulus and response become strengthened
through repetition and practice.
Law of Exercise
learning is most effective when individuals are mentally and physically
prepared or ready to respond.
Law of Readiness
19. PART III. PRINCIPLES
A. Behavior as a result of
stimulus-response associations
B. The role of reinforcement and
punishment in shaping behavior
C. Observable and measurable
behavior
D. The concept of conditioning
20. PART IV. CRITICISMS
A. Lack of emphasis on cognitive
processes and internal mental states
B. Ignoring the role of individual
differences and uniqueness
C. Ethical concerns regarding the use
of punishment
D. Challenges in generalizing behavior
across different contexts
