Logical or deductive reasoning involves using a given set of facts or data to deduce other facts by reasoning logically. It involves drawing specific conclusions based on premises. Reasoning is the process of using existing knowledge to draw conclusions, make predictions, or construct explanations. Three methods of reasoning are the deductive, inductive, and abductive approaches. The development of Indian logic dates back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini (c. 5th century BCE); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of inference by Gotama.

1. AEF’s, AICESR organizes Lecture Series for SET/ NET examination
Session No.-7 Unit-VI
Logical Reasoning
20/12/2020
Prof. Samruddhi Chepe

2. Syllabus-
1. Understanding the structure of arguments: argument forms, structure of categorical
propositions, Mood and Figure, Formal and Informal fallacies, Uses of language,
Connotations and denotations of terms, Classical square of opposition.
2. Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive reasoning.
3. Analogies.
4. Venn diagram: Simple and multiple use for establishing validity of arguments.
5. Indian Logic: Means of knowledge.
6. Pramanas: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Comparison),
Shabda (Verbal testimony), Arthapatti (Implication) and Anupalabddhi (Non-
apprehension).
7. Structure and kinds of Anumana (inference),Vyapti (invariable relation),
Hetvabhasas(fallacies of inference).
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3. ARGUMENT
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4. argument
✗ In logic and philosophy, an argument is a series
of statements (in a natural language), called
the premises, intended to determine the degree
of truth of another statement, the conclusion.
✗ For Eg.-“The internet is a good invention.”
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5. What is an argument?
✗ An argument is a set of statements made up, at
minimum, of the following parts:
✗ A main conclusion: This statement is a claim
that expresses what the arguer is trying to
persuade us to accept, whether or not it
actually is true.
✗ Evidence: Also known as premises or support,
the arguer provides these statements in order
to show us that the conclusion is true.
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6. Signal words for conclusions
✗ Thus
✗ Therefore
✗ Hence
✗ So
✗ Conclude
✗ It follows that
✗ As a result
✗ Clearly
✗ Obviously
✗ Nevertheless
✗ Nonetheless
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7. Argument-
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Argument
Conclusion Evidence

8. VENN Diagram
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9. Venn Diagram-
✗ A diagram that consists of
circles.
✗ The circles represent the
elements of the set and the
outer parts represent
elements that are not part of
the set.
✗ A Venn Diagram is used to
organize a list of data.

10. ANALOGIES
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11. ANALOGY-
✗ In this type of test, three words followed by
four possible answers are given.
✗ There is some relationship between the first
two objects.
✗ The same relationship exists between the third
object and one of the answers.
✗ The candidate has to find the required word
from the given options.
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12. Examples
1. Man is to walk as fish is to ?
i. Swim
ii. Eat
iii. Live
iv. Run
2. Train : Bogies :: Forest : ?
i. Animal
ii. Tree
iii. Fruit
iv. Garden

13. Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
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14. Inductive Approach and Deductive Approach-
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Rule is formed
Observations Done Similarities are drawn
Rule is verified through
examples
Rule is studied Rule is Tested

15. PRAMANA
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16. Pramana
✗ Indian Logical Reasoning is Pramana.
✗ Pramana, a Sanskrit word, which literally means
“proof” and “means of knowledge”. The study of
Pramanas is called Nyaya.
✗ It is a very critical topic to understand the laws of
Indian Logic and the philosophy of knowledge. It
has a different school of thought and philosophies
through which a person can understand the world.
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17. 17
Pramana
Pratyakṣa
(Perception)
Anumāṇa
(Inference)
Śabda (Word,
VerbalTestimony)
Upamāṇa
(Comparison,
Analogy)
Arthapatti
(Postulation,
Presumption,
Implication)
Anupalabddhi
(Non-
apprehension).

18. Pratyaksha-
✗ Pratyaksh or Perception implies direct, immediate
cognition. There are two kinds of direct perception,
external and internal. The ‘external’ perception implies
cognition of sense objects, namely – sound, touch, form,
taste and smell by our five sense organs .The ‘internal’
perception means the direct & immediate cognition of
pain, pleasure, love, hate, anger, knowledge or ignorance
of various objects etc. in & by our minds.
✗ For Example;
Illusion at night of the rope as a snake.
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19. ANUMANA
✗ The nearest word to Anuman is inference. the
invariable relationship between the two
objects.
✗ Anuman is given least importance because it is
susceptible to error.
✗ For Example;
Seeing the smoke at a distance comng from
behind a hill and thinking there is a fire.
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20. Upamana
✗ Upamana is the process by which the knowledge of
A’s similarity to B is gained from the perception of
B’s similarity to A, which has been seen elsewhere.
This methodology is seen as distinct from mere
inference, and is thus accepted as a valid mediate
method of knowledge.
✗ A person who has seen his cow at home goes to a
forest and sees a wild cow. The person sees the
similarity ‘This cow is like my cow’, and on this basis
also concludes the opposite to be equally true, that
‘My cow is like this cow’.
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21. Sabdha Pramana-
✗ Sabdha Pramana is verbal testimony. It is also
called ‘apta-vakyas’ (statement of a trust-worthy
person’, and agama (authentic word).
✗ A verbal statement, uttered or written, is man’s
most potent instrument for transmitting knowledge.
✗ Books, magazines, newspaper, letters,
conversations, chats, radio, TV, movies, songs etc.
etc. All use or depend on words.
✗ Example- Holy Books, Newspaper, Dictionary, etc.
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22. Anupalabdhi-
✗ Anupalabdhi is a proof of knowledge from
negation or absence of a thing.
✗ For Example;
In a college, Mr. A has not attended any lecture
today. So it must mean that he went to watch a
movie.
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23. Arthapatti-
✗ It is of two kinds – Pratyaksha based on the
perception of an object and Shruti based on hearing.
This kind of proof is a mixed proof by perception and
inference.
✗ For Example;
Mr. A, who is alive, but is not in his house. The very
knowledge of his being out of his house is based on
perception. We, ourselves look for him in the house,
but we do not see him, so we conclude that since he
is alive and is not inside the house, he must be
somewhere outside his house.
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24. Aitti Pramana-
✗ It is the Itihas (History). The culture of scripture
continued for more than 40 Years becomes
History.
✗ From Aitti derived to Itihas means history. It is
the Itihas (Aittiyaha) Pramana.
✗ For Example;- History of Mohenjo Daro
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25. Thanks!
Any questions?
You can find me at:
✗ samruddhichepe@gmail.c
om
✗ 7588703197
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