The document discusses gas exchange in the lungs. It explains that two processes maintain concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood: 1) circulation brings deoxygenated blood to the alveoli, and 2) ventilation increases and decreases lung volume through muscle contractions, ensuring a supply of oxygenated air reaches the alveoli. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract during inhalation to inflate the lungs, allowing for gas exchange by diffusion across the alveoli.
The blood system continuously transports substances to cells and collects waste through three main types of blood vessels. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to tissues and have muscle and elastic fibers to maintain blood pressure. Capillaries have thin walls that penetrate tissues and allow for exchange. Veins collect blood from tissues and return it to the heart, using valves to prevent backflow. William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood in the early 1600s, overturning earlier theories, and the heart acts as a pump initiated by the sinoatrial node to circulate blood continuously through this system.
1. Cells are the basic unit of all living things. Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 using a microscope. The cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, cells come only from pre-existing cells, and cells contain the basic components necessary for life.
2. Cells vary in size but have limitations based on their surface area to volume ratio. As cells increase in size, their ability to exchange materials decreases. Multicellular organisms overcome this through specialized tissues, organs and circulatory systems.
3. Cells carry out the basic functions of life including metabolism, reproduction, homeostasis, growth, response to stimuli, waste removal and nutrition. Unicellular organisms carry out all life functions
6.6 Hormones Homeo and Repro (Chris Paine)cartlidge
Thyroxin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland that controls metabolism and affects growth and physiological processes. It regulates the metabolic rate and helps control body temperature. Most hormones affect multiple target tissues and have more than one effect. The document discusses thyroid hormones and their roles, as well as hormones involved in the menstrual cycle and their feedback mechanisms.
3.4 U.1 summarizes that Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance through experiments crossing large numbers of pea plants. Gametes contain only one allele of each gene according to 3.4 U.2. During meiosis, the two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei as stated in 3.4 U.3. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene as explained in 3.4 U.4. Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles, while codominant alleles have joint effects as described in 3.4 U.5. Many genetic diseases are due to recessive alleles on autosomal genes, though some are dominant or codomin
The document summarizes the body's primary defenses against infectious disease. The skin and mucous membranes form the first line of defense through physical and chemical barriers. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting initiated by platelets. Phagocytic white blood cells provide non-specific immunity by ingesting pathogens. Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies in response to antigens that provide long-term immunity. Antibiotics target bacterial rather than viral or eukaryotic cells. Overuse of antibiotics can lead to resistant bacterial strains.
The document discusses neurons and synapses in the human brain. It begins by showing an image of a small segment of the human brain, with lines representing neurons and dots representing synapses. It notes that synapses are crucial for neural communication and thought. While the number of brain cells does not increase much after birth, the connections between neurons through synapses continue developing. The document then provides explanations of key concepts regarding neurons, synapses, and neural signaling. It explains how neurons transmit electrical signals, how synapses allow signals to be transmitted between neurons, and how signals propagate along axons through action potentials.
The document discusses gas exchange in the lungs. It explains that two processes maintain concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and blood: 1) circulation brings deoxygenated blood to the alveoli, and 2) ventilation increases and decreases lung volume through muscle contractions, ensuring a supply of oxygenated air reaches the alveoli. The diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract during inhalation to inflate the lungs, allowing for gas exchange by diffusion across the alveoli.
The blood system continuously transports substances to cells and collects waste through three main types of blood vessels. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to tissues and have muscle and elastic fibers to maintain blood pressure. Capillaries have thin walls that penetrate tissues and allow for exchange. Veins collect blood from tissues and return it to the heart, using valves to prevent backflow. William Harvey discovered the circulation of blood in the early 1600s, overturning earlier theories, and the heart acts as a pump initiated by the sinoatrial node to circulate blood continuously through this system.
1. Cells are the basic unit of all living things. Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 using a microscope. The cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, cells come only from pre-existing cells, and cells contain the basic components necessary for life.
2. Cells vary in size but have limitations based on their surface area to volume ratio. As cells increase in size, their ability to exchange materials decreases. Multicellular organisms overcome this through specialized tissues, organs and circulatory systems.
3. Cells carry out the basic functions of life including metabolism, reproduction, homeostasis, growth, response to stimuli, waste removal and nutrition. Unicellular organisms carry out all life functions
6.6 Hormones Homeo and Repro (Chris Paine)cartlidge
Thyroxin is a hormone produced by the thyroid gland that controls metabolism and affects growth and physiological processes. It regulates the metabolic rate and helps control body temperature. Most hormones affect multiple target tissues and have more than one effect. The document discusses thyroid hormones and their roles, as well as hormones involved in the menstrual cycle and their feedback mechanisms.
3.4 U.1 summarizes that Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance through experiments crossing large numbers of pea plants. Gametes contain only one allele of each gene according to 3.4 U.2. During meiosis, the two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei as stated in 3.4 U.3. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene as explained in 3.4 U.4. Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles, while codominant alleles have joint effects as described in 3.4 U.5. Many genetic diseases are due to recessive alleles on autosomal genes, though some are dominant or codomin
The document summarizes the body's primary defenses against infectious disease. The skin and mucous membranes form the first line of defense through physical and chemical barriers. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting initiated by platelets. Phagocytic white blood cells provide non-specific immunity by ingesting pathogens. Lymphocytes produce specific antibodies in response to antigens that provide long-term immunity. Antibiotics target bacterial rather than viral or eukaryotic cells. Overuse of antibiotics can lead to resistant bacterial strains.
The document discusses neurons and synapses in the human brain. It begins by showing an image of a small segment of the human brain, with lines representing neurons and dots representing synapses. It notes that synapses are crucial for neural communication and thought. While the number of brain cells does not increase much after birth, the connections between neurons through synapses continue developing. The document then provides explanations of key concepts regarding neurons, synapses, and neural signaling. It explains how neurons transmit electrical signals, how synapses allow signals to be transmitted between neurons, and how signals propagate along axons through action potentials.
The document provides information about the digestive system. It discusses:
- How the small intestine mixes food with enzymes via muscle contraction and moves it along.
- The pancreas secretes enzymes like amylase, lipase, and an endopeptidase into the small intestine to digest macromolecules.
- Enzymes digest most macromolecules into monomers in the small intestine.
- Villi in the small intestine increase absorption surface area and absorb monomers and nutrients.
- Different membrane transport methods are required to absorb different nutrients like glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.
IB Biology 4.1-4.2 Slides: Ecosystems & Energy FlowJacob Cedarbaum
This document discusses several ecological sampling and analysis techniques:
1) Quadrats are used to sample populations by placing frames randomly and counting organisms, providing estimates of population sizes.
2) Chi-squared testing analyzes associations between variables by calculating expected and observed frequencies in contingency tables and comparing a chi-squared value to a critical value.
3) Ecosystems cycle nutrients which flow through food chains and are recycled by decomposers to maintain sustainability.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half to produce gametes for sexual reproduction. It involves two cell divisions. In the first division, homologous chromosome pairs separate, reducing the number by half. Crossing over and random assortment during meiosis increases genetic variation. Fusion of male and female gametes through fertilization combines the genetic material of the two parents, maximizing genetic diversity in offspring. Errors in meiosis can result in chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome. Methods to obtain fetal cells for analysis include amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling.
The human body has multiple lines of defense against pathogens. The skin and mucous membranes form the first line of defense by providing a physical barrier. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting to prevent pathogen entry. The second line of defense involves phagocytic white blood cells that ingest pathogens. The third and most specific line of defense is the immune response carried out by B and T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes produce antibodies targeted to specific pathogens, providing long-lasting immunity.
The document summarizes key points about the origin of cells:
1. Cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, the cell is the smallest unit of life, and cells only come from pre-existing cells.
2. Pasteur's experiments in 1864 disproved spontaneous generation and provided evidence that cells only arise from other cells.
3. Miller and Urey's experiments in 1953 simulated early Earth conditions and formed simple organic molecules like amino acids, providing evidence that the first cells could have originated from non-living materials.
4. The endosymbiotic theory explains the origin of eukaryotic cells, proposing that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originally came from
Cardiac muscle tissue is unique to the heart and has a similar structure to skeletal muscle but works involuntarily like smooth muscle. Hardening of the arteries, called atherosclerosis, is caused by the formation of plaques on artery walls from factors like genetics, age, smoking, diet, and obesity. These plaques can trigger blood clots that block blood flow through arteries.
IB Biology 1.2 Slides: Ultrastructure of CellsJacob Cedarbaum
Electron microscopes have much higher resolution than light microscopes due to the shorter wavelengths of electron beams. Prokaryotes like E. coli have a simple cell structure without compartments, containing a cell wall, plasma membrane, ribosomes, nucleoid, cytoplasm and other structures. They divide via binary fission. Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure containing organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles. Organelles in specialized cells like pancreatic and leaf cells are adapted for their functions like enzyme secretion and photosynthesis.
This document discusses human nutrition and physiology. It outlines essential nutrients that cannot be produced by the body, including some amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals. It specifically discusses vitamin C and how humans cannot produce it. It also mentions essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 for brain and eye development. The document then discusses how calorimetry can be used to estimate the energy content of foods and compares the relative energy content of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Finally, it briefly mentions diabetes mellitus and some of its causes, symptoms, and related heart problems.
The document summarizes the digestive process. It explains that digestive juices are only produced when needed, such as gastric juice being produced in the stomach when food is present. The sight or smell of food causes the brain to send nerve impulses via the vagus nerve which stimulate the production of secretions like gastrin from the duodenum. Gastrin then stimulates the production of HCl and pepsinogen by stomach cells to aid digestion. Secretin and somatostatin hormones inhibit gastrin secretion. Exocrine glands secrete enzymes into ducts while endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Meiosis is a cell division process that produces four haploid cells from one diploid cell. It involves two rounds of division called Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange genetic material through crossing over. The homologous chromosomes then separate, reducing the chromosome number by half. Meiosis II then divides the cells again without further chromosome replication or crossing over, resulting in four haploid cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. This process is important for sexual reproduction as it generates genetic diversity through independent assortment and crossing over.
1. The document discusses the structure and properties of cell membranes. It describes how phospholipid molecules form a bilayer structure in water, with their hydrophobic tails associating together and hydrophilic heads facing outwards.
2. The early "Davson-Danielli" model of the cell membrane proposed that proteins coated the surface of the phospholipid bilayer. However, evidence from techniques like freeze-fracturing and fluorescent tagging showed that some proteins pass through the membrane and are able to move laterally within it.
3. This evidence led to the "Singer-Nicholson fluid mosaic model", which describes the cell membrane as a fluid bilayer of phospholipids with integral and peripheral proteins dispersed within
Genes are segments of DNA that influence or directly code for specific traits. A gene occupies a specific locus on a chromosome and can exist in different allelic forms that differ slightly in their DNA sequence. New alleles are formed through mutations in genes over time. A notable example is sickle cell anemia, which is caused by a single base substitution mutation leading to a change in the hemoglobin polypeptide. The human genome project mapped the entire DNA sequence of humans, identifying around 23,000 genes, though much non-coding DNA was also found to have important functions.
Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that target other endocrine glands like the thyroid. During digestion, glands like the stomach, pancreas, and intestines secrete enzymes and juices to break down food into absorbable nutrients. The small intestine absorbs these nutrients through epithelial cells lining villi using various transport mechanisms, then releases them into the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in two daughter cells with identical genetic material to the original parent cell. It occurs in eukaryotic cells and involves several phases - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Cytokinesis then separates the daughter cells. Mitosis is important for tissue growth, repair and regeneration, asexual reproduction and embryonic development. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases control the progression of cells through the cell cycle phases. Disruptions can lead to uncontrolled cell division and cancer. Smoking is strongly correlated with increased lung cancer rates due to carcinogens in tobacco smoke.
IB Biology 2.1 Slides: Molecules to MetabolismJacob Cedarbaum
The document discusses molecular biology and metabolism. It begins by explaining that molecular biology views living processes in terms of chemical substances. It then discusses DNA and genes, and the central idea that DNA makes RNA makes protein. The document outlines the reductionist approach of molecular biologists in breaking down metabolic pathways. It provides examples of anabolism through condensation reactions and catabolism through hydrolysis reactions. Throughout, it gives examples of key biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. In summary, the document covers foundational concepts in molecular biology and metabolism, from genes and proteins to anabolic and catabolic pathways.
The document discusses various topics related to human nutrition:
- It describes the essential nutrients that must be consumed as part of our diet, including water, lipids, some amino acids, and vitamins and minerals.
- It then covers digestion, including the roles of the stomach, small intestine, liver, and heart. The stomach aids in protein digestion through gastric juices. The small intestine completes digestion with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The liver performs many functions including detoxification and production of proteins and bile. The heart pumps blood throughout the body.
This document provides information on genetics and chromosomes. It defines key terms like genes, alleles, haploid and diploid cells. It describes the structure of chromosomes and how they pair up and separate during meiosis. It explains karyotyping and how genetic testing can determine gender or abnormalities. It also covers Mendel's experiments on inheritance, using pedigree charts and test crosses to determine genotypes. The latter part discusses DNA profiling, genetic modification, cloning, the human genome project and debates around therapeutic cloning.
Modern genetic techniques such as gel electrophoresis, PCR, and DNA profiling allow for manipulation of organisms' traits. Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size, PCR amplifies small amounts of DNA, and DNA profiling compares DNA sequences to identify individuals. Genetic modification involves transferring genes between species using techniques like bacterial transformation with plasmids. Cloning produces genetically identical organisms and can occur naturally or be induced in plants, animals, and embryos. Both genetic modification and cloning have potential risks but also benefits like improved crops and medical treatments.
Living organisms control their composition through a complex web of metabolic reactions. Metabolism involves both anabolism, the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones through condensation reactions like forming peptides from amino acids, and catabolism, the breakdown of complex molecules into monomers through hydrolysis like breaking down lactose into glucose and galactose. These metabolic pathways allow organisms to build up macromolecules from basic building blocks like sugars, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids that are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements and controlled through enzyme catalysis.
The human body has structures and processes that resist the continuous threat of invasion by pathogens. These include leukocytes that ingest and destroy pathogens, as well as physical barriers like the skin and mucous membranes. The body also has mechanisms for blood clotting to prevent the entry of pathogens through cuts in the skin. Lymphocytes produce antibodies that provide specific immunity against particular pathogens. While antibiotics can treat bacterial infections by blocking bacterial processes, they are ineffective against viruses which lack metabolism and cannot be treated in the same way.
The document discusses the human digestive system. It explains that digestion breaks down large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. Enzymes play an important role by speeding up digestion. The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas. Digestion involves both physical and chemical breakdown of food. Absorption takes nutrients into the bloodstream while assimilation incorporates them into body tissues. The small intestine contains villi with microvilli that increase absorption surface area.
This document provides a virtual field trip of 7 major Texas land formations, including Caddo Lake, Palo Duro Canyon, Big Bend, Big Thicket National Preserve, Galveston Island State Park, Natural Bridge Caverns, and the Guadalupe Mountains and Chihuahuan Desert. It instructs students to write out planned and thoughtful answers using scientific terminology for each landform and location before turning in their work.
The document provides information about the digestive system. It discusses:
- How the small intestine mixes food with enzymes via muscle contraction and moves it along.
- The pancreas secretes enzymes like amylase, lipase, and an endopeptidase into the small intestine to digest macromolecules.
- Enzymes digest most macromolecules into monomers in the small intestine.
- Villi in the small intestine increase absorption surface area and absorb monomers and nutrients.
- Different membrane transport methods are required to absorb different nutrients like glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids.
IB Biology 4.1-4.2 Slides: Ecosystems & Energy FlowJacob Cedarbaum
This document discusses several ecological sampling and analysis techniques:
1) Quadrats are used to sample populations by placing frames randomly and counting organisms, providing estimates of population sizes.
2) Chi-squared testing analyzes associations between variables by calculating expected and observed frequencies in contingency tables and comparing a chi-squared value to a critical value.
3) Ecosystems cycle nutrients which flow through food chains and are recycled by decomposers to maintain sustainability.
Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half to produce gametes for sexual reproduction. It involves two cell divisions. In the first division, homologous chromosome pairs separate, reducing the number by half. Crossing over and random assortment during meiosis increases genetic variation. Fusion of male and female gametes through fertilization combines the genetic material of the two parents, maximizing genetic diversity in offspring. Errors in meiosis can result in chromosomal abnormalities like Down syndrome. Methods to obtain fetal cells for analysis include amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling.
The human body has multiple lines of defense against pathogens. The skin and mucous membranes form the first line of defense by providing a physical barrier. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting to prevent pathogen entry. The second line of defense involves phagocytic white blood cells that ingest pathogens. The third and most specific line of defense is the immune response carried out by B and T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes produce antibodies targeted to specific pathogens, providing long-lasting immunity.
The document summarizes key points about the origin of cells:
1. Cell theory states that all living things are made of cells, the cell is the smallest unit of life, and cells only come from pre-existing cells.
2. Pasteur's experiments in 1864 disproved spontaneous generation and provided evidence that cells only arise from other cells.
3. Miller and Urey's experiments in 1953 simulated early Earth conditions and formed simple organic molecules like amino acids, providing evidence that the first cells could have originated from non-living materials.
4. The endosymbiotic theory explains the origin of eukaryotic cells, proposing that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts originally came from
Cardiac muscle tissue is unique to the heart and has a similar structure to skeletal muscle but works involuntarily like smooth muscle. Hardening of the arteries, called atherosclerosis, is caused by the formation of plaques on artery walls from factors like genetics, age, smoking, diet, and obesity. These plaques can trigger blood clots that block blood flow through arteries.
IB Biology 1.2 Slides: Ultrastructure of CellsJacob Cedarbaum
Electron microscopes have much higher resolution than light microscopes due to the shorter wavelengths of electron beams. Prokaryotes like E. coli have a simple cell structure without compartments, containing a cell wall, plasma membrane, ribosomes, nucleoid, cytoplasm and other structures. They divide via binary fission. Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure containing organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles. Organelles in specialized cells like pancreatic and leaf cells are adapted for their functions like enzyme secretion and photosynthesis.
This document discusses human nutrition and physiology. It outlines essential nutrients that cannot be produced by the body, including some amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals. It specifically discusses vitamin C and how humans cannot produce it. It also mentions essential fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 for brain and eye development. The document then discusses how calorimetry can be used to estimate the energy content of foods and compares the relative energy content of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Finally, it briefly mentions diabetes mellitus and some of its causes, symptoms, and related heart problems.
The document summarizes the digestive process. It explains that digestive juices are only produced when needed, such as gastric juice being produced in the stomach when food is present. The sight or smell of food causes the brain to send nerve impulses via the vagus nerve which stimulate the production of secretions like gastrin from the duodenum. Gastrin then stimulates the production of HCl and pepsinogen by stomach cells to aid digestion. Secretin and somatostatin hormones inhibit gastrin secretion. Exocrine glands secrete enzymes into ducts while endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Meiosis is a cell division process that produces four haploid cells from one diploid cell. It involves two rounds of division called Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and may exchange genetic material through crossing over. The homologous chromosomes then separate, reducing the chromosome number by half. Meiosis II then divides the cells again without further chromosome replication or crossing over, resulting in four haploid cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. This process is important for sexual reproduction as it generates genetic diversity through independent assortment and crossing over.
1. The document discusses the structure and properties of cell membranes. It describes how phospholipid molecules form a bilayer structure in water, with their hydrophobic tails associating together and hydrophilic heads facing outwards.
2. The early "Davson-Danielli" model of the cell membrane proposed that proteins coated the surface of the phospholipid bilayer. However, evidence from techniques like freeze-fracturing and fluorescent tagging showed that some proteins pass through the membrane and are able to move laterally within it.
3. This evidence led to the "Singer-Nicholson fluid mosaic model", which describes the cell membrane as a fluid bilayer of phospholipids with integral and peripheral proteins dispersed within
Genes are segments of DNA that influence or directly code for specific traits. A gene occupies a specific locus on a chromosome and can exist in different allelic forms that differ slightly in their DNA sequence. New alleles are formed through mutations in genes over time. A notable example is sickle cell anemia, which is caused by a single base substitution mutation leading to a change in the hemoglobin polypeptide. The human genome project mapped the entire DNA sequence of humans, identifying around 23,000 genes, though much non-coding DNA was also found to have important functions.
Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes. The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland, which secretes hormones that target other endocrine glands like the thyroid. During digestion, glands like the stomach, pancreas, and intestines secrete enzymes and juices to break down food into absorbable nutrients. The small intestine absorbs these nutrients through epithelial cells lining villi using various transport mechanisms, then releases them into the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
Mitosis is the process of cell division that results in two daughter cells with identical genetic material to the original parent cell. It occurs in eukaryotic cells and involves several phases - prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Cytokinesis then separates the daughter cells. Mitosis is important for tissue growth, repair and regeneration, asexual reproduction and embryonic development. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases control the progression of cells through the cell cycle phases. Disruptions can lead to uncontrolled cell division and cancer. Smoking is strongly correlated with increased lung cancer rates due to carcinogens in tobacco smoke.
IB Biology 2.1 Slides: Molecules to MetabolismJacob Cedarbaum
The document discusses molecular biology and metabolism. It begins by explaining that molecular biology views living processes in terms of chemical substances. It then discusses DNA and genes, and the central idea that DNA makes RNA makes protein. The document outlines the reductionist approach of molecular biologists in breaking down metabolic pathways. It provides examples of anabolism through condensation reactions and catabolism through hydrolysis reactions. Throughout, it gives examples of key biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. In summary, the document covers foundational concepts in molecular biology and metabolism, from genes and proteins to anabolic and catabolic pathways.
The document discusses various topics related to human nutrition:
- It describes the essential nutrients that must be consumed as part of our diet, including water, lipids, some amino acids, and vitamins and minerals.
- It then covers digestion, including the roles of the stomach, small intestine, liver, and heart. The stomach aids in protein digestion through gastric juices. The small intestine completes digestion with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The liver performs many functions including detoxification and production of proteins and bile. The heart pumps blood throughout the body.
This document provides information on genetics and chromosomes. It defines key terms like genes, alleles, haploid and diploid cells. It describes the structure of chromosomes and how they pair up and separate during meiosis. It explains karyotyping and how genetic testing can determine gender or abnormalities. It also covers Mendel's experiments on inheritance, using pedigree charts and test crosses to determine genotypes. The latter part discusses DNA profiling, genetic modification, cloning, the human genome project and debates around therapeutic cloning.
Modern genetic techniques such as gel electrophoresis, PCR, and DNA profiling allow for manipulation of organisms' traits. Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size, PCR amplifies small amounts of DNA, and DNA profiling compares DNA sequences to identify individuals. Genetic modification involves transferring genes between species using techniques like bacterial transformation with plasmids. Cloning produces genetically identical organisms and can occur naturally or be induced in plants, animals, and embryos. Both genetic modification and cloning have potential risks but also benefits like improved crops and medical treatments.
Living organisms control their composition through a complex web of metabolic reactions. Metabolism involves both anabolism, the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones through condensation reactions like forming peptides from amino acids, and catabolism, the breakdown of complex molecules into monomers through hydrolysis like breaking down lactose into glucose and galactose. These metabolic pathways allow organisms to build up macromolecules from basic building blocks like sugars, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids that are made from carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and other elements and controlled through enzyme catalysis.
The human body has structures and processes that resist the continuous threat of invasion by pathogens. These include leukocytes that ingest and destroy pathogens, as well as physical barriers like the skin and mucous membranes. The body also has mechanisms for blood clotting to prevent the entry of pathogens through cuts in the skin. Lymphocytes produce antibodies that provide specific immunity against particular pathogens. While antibiotics can treat bacterial infections by blocking bacterial processes, they are ineffective against viruses which lack metabolism and cannot be treated in the same way.
The document discusses the human digestive system. It explains that digestion breaks down large food molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed. Enzymes play an important role by speeding up digestion. The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas. Digestion involves both physical and chemical breakdown of food. Absorption takes nutrients into the bloodstream while assimilation incorporates them into body tissues. The small intestine contains villi with microvilli that increase absorption surface area.
This document provides a virtual field trip of 7 major Texas land formations, including Caddo Lake, Palo Duro Canyon, Big Bend, Big Thicket National Preserve, Galveston Island State Park, Natural Bridge Caverns, and the Guadalupe Mountains and Chihuahuan Desert. It instructs students to write out planned and thoughtful answers using scientific terminology for each landform and location before turning in their work.
Humans and frogs share some similarities but also have key differences. Both humans and frogs will quickly remove themselves from hot water but find cold water comfortable. They also both have the ability to jump, though humans can run and jump farther than frogs. When threatened, both humans and frogs will make sounds seeking help. However, humans live on land in houses while frogs can live on land or in water. Humans are mammals with warm blood while frogs are amphibians with cold blood. Frogs also lay eggs while humans give birth. Finally, human skin is soft while frog skin is rough and scaly.
This document provides instructions for a frog dissection lab. It begins with terminology and safety instructions. Students are tasked with labeling the external anatomy of a frog, including identifying structures like the dorsal and ventral surfaces, limbs, eyes, tympanic membranes, and mouthparts. The internal dissection involves pinning and making cuts to expose organs. Key systems that are dissected and labeled include the digestive system (stomach, intestines, liver), urogenital system (kidneys, testes/ovaries), respiratory system (lungs), and circulatory system (heart). Questions assess understanding of anatomy like frog sex determination and organ descriptions. A list of terms to know for an exam is also provided.
The document summarizes the main body systems of frogs:
- The reproductive system allows frogs to produce offspring through external fertilization, with males releasing sperm onto eggs laid by females.
- The endocrine system secretes hormones to regulate processes like hibernation and reproduction.
- Other body systems discussed include the nervous, muscular, skeletal, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, integumentary and digestive systems, which perform similar functions to humans.
Slideshow is from the University of Michigan Medical
School's M1 Immunology sequence
View additional course materials on Open.Michigan:
openmi.ch/med-M1Immunology
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of frogs. It describes some of the key external and internal features of frogs, including that males can be identified by vocal sacs and a copulatory pad. It also outlines several frog body systems, noting frogs have a three-chambered heart and respiratory systems that can include lungs and cutaneous respiration through the skin. Their excretory system produces urea to conserve water.
This document provides an overview of the structure and function of skin and its appendages. It discusses the three layers of skin - the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis - and describes the cellular structure and functions of each layer. It also examines skin appendages like hair, nails, sweat and sebaceous glands. The document is intended as a reference for the anatomy of skin and its related tissues.
1. A balanced diet consists of water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, mineral salts, vitamins, and dietary fiber. Each nutrient has specific functions and sources.
2. Carbohydrates provide energy and are stored as glycogen or starch. Lipids also provide energy and are stored as fat. Proteins are needed for growth, repair, and making enzymes and antibodies.
3. Mineral salts like calcium, iron, and phosphorus help cells function properly and are obtained from foods like milk, meat, and grains. Vitamins aid chemical reactions in the body and are obtained from various food sources.
This document discusses gas exchange in four animal groups - mammals, fish, birds, and insects. It describes how each group has adapted to efficiently take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide through specialized gas exchange surfaces and circulatory systems. Fish respire through gills with countercurrent flow to enhance gas diffusion. Mammals and birds use lungs with alveoli that have a large surface area and short diffusion distance. Birds additionally have air sacs that facilitate one-way airflow through the lungs. Insects transport gases directly to cells through a tracheal system.
Chapter 16 Lymphatic System and Immunity1957Hamlet
The document provides an overview of the lymphatic system and immunity from Chapter 16 of Hole's Human Anatomy and Physiology textbook. It discusses the key components and functions of the lymphatic system including lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymph fluid formation and flow, and immune defenses. The summary highlights that the lymphatic system transports excess fluid, transports fats, and helps defend the body against disease. It also distinguishes between innate nonspecific defenses and adaptive specific defenses of the immune system.
The document provides an overview of the lymphatic system, including its history, development, components, and functions. It discusses how the lymphatic system developed from lymph sacs in the embryo and transformed into nodes. The key components are lymphatic capillaries that collect fluid from tissues, vessels that connect to nodes, ducts like the thoracic duct that return lymph to blood circulation, and lymphoid organs like the thymus, bone marrow, spleen and nodes that help fight infection. The lymphatic system works to remove excess fluid, distribute nutrients, and fight pathogens throughout the body.
The lymphatic system functions to:
1) Transport clean fluids back to the blood from tissues;
2) Drain excess fluids from tissues; and
3) Remove debris from cells of the body.
Lymph is transported through lymphatic vessels in a passive, one-way system toward the heart, where it is returned to circulation. Along the way, lymph passes through lymph nodes which filter the lymph and provide an immune response. Other lymphoid organs like the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and Peyer's patches also contribute to lymphatic function and immune defense.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the circulatory system. It describes that blood is composed of plasma and blood cells. Plasma contains nutrients, waste, gases, and proteins. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells protect against disease, and platelets help with clotting. The heart has four chambers and uses systole and diastole to pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body in double circulation. Blood vessels include arteries, veins, and capillaries to transport blood throughout the body.
Describe blood circulation in human heart
Describe the composition and functions of blood
Explain the function of lymphatic system
Explain the roles of immune system
compiled from various resources
Here is a chart showing the components of human blood, their functions, and relative proportions by blood volume:
Component Function Proportion of blood volume
Plasma - Carries cells and molecules
- Maintains osmotic pressure
- Involved in clotting 55% (about 90% water)
Red blood cells - Carry oxygen to tissues
- Carry carbon dioxide from tissues 40%
White blood cells - Fight infection and disease <1%
- Neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, etc.
Platelets - Involved in clotting process <1%
The major components that make up the formed elements (cells)
This document provides a summary of the human transport systems. It discusses 3 main systems - the blood, circulatory system, and lymphatic system. The blood transports substances around the body via blood vessels and is composed of plasma and blood cells. The circulatory system uses blood vessels and the heart to transport blood. It includes arteries, veins, and capillaries. The lymphatic system drains lymph from tissues and returns it to the blood, and contains lymph nodes that filter the lymph.
The document discusses several topics related to human health and physiology:
1. It describes the process of digestion, including ingestion, digestion, absorption, and transport of nutrients through the circulatory system. Key digestive enzymes and organs involved in digestion like the stomach and small intestine are explained.
2. The transport system is summarized, including the structure and double pump function of the heart to circulate blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations to lungs and body respectively via arteries, arterioles, capillaries and veins.
3. Defence against infectious diseases is briefly covered, noting that pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi can cause disease, and that antibiotics work by selectively targeting differences between bacterial and human cells
The document discusses the circulatory system and blood transport in animals. It describes single and double circulatory systems. In a single circulation, blood travels from the heart to the gills to absorb oxygen and then to the organs before returning to the heart. In a double circulation, there are two circuits - one where blood passes from the heart to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide, and another where blood passes from the heart to the organs and tissues to deliver oxygen before returning to the heart. A double circulation has evolved to create more pressure to pump blood around the system and separate oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.
This document discusses the lymphatic drainage of the head and neck. It begins by covering the development of the lymphatic system from lymph sacs that arise from developing veins. It then defines key components of the lymphatic system including lymph, lymphatic channels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs. The document goes on to describe the regional distribution and drainage patterns of lymph nodes in the head and neck area. It provides classifications of cervical lymph nodes and identifies the lymphatic drainage pathways of individual head and neck organs.
L5 function and major components of the c.sReach Na
The circulatory system transports blood, nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes throughout the body (1). It has two main functions: transportation and protection (2). The major components that work together are the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), blood, and lymphatic system (3).
This document provides information about the circulatory system, including its key features and functions. It discusses the two main types of circulatory systems - open and closed. Open systems are found in arthropods and mollusks, where hemolymph circulates through the hemocoel. Closed systems are in vertebrates and some other animals, where blood circulates through vessels. A closed system allows for larger body sizes as it is more efficient at oxygen transport. The document also covers the components of blood and different blood cell types, as well as the classes of blood vessels and heart anatomy.
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the lymphatic system. It defines the lymphatic system as a network of tissues and organs that help rid the body of toxins, waste, and other unwanted materials. The key components include lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. The main functions of the lymphatic system are to transport lymph, drain excess tissue fluid, transport dietary lipids, and carry out immune responses.
The lymphatic system helps remove excess fluid and proteins from tissues and returns them to the bloodstream. Lymph vessels drain interstitial fluid from most tissues into the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct, which empty into subclavian veins. Along with monocytes and macrophages, lymph nodes filter the lymph and phagocytose pathogens and cellular debris. The monocyte-macrophage system, also called the reticuloendothelial system, is comprised of tissue-resident macrophages that protect against infection by phagocytosing invading microbes in tissues like the lungs, liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
The circulatory system is made up of the heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood, and works together to transport nutrients, oxygen, hormones, and waste throughout the entire body. The heart pumps blood through the blood vessels, delivering oxygen and nutrients to cells and picking up carbon dioxide and other cellular waste. The circulatory system forms a double loop - the pulmonary circulation between the heart and lungs, and the systemic circulation between the heart and all other tissues. Together this system sustains the functions of all organ systems.
Circulatory and lymphatic, respiratorytracyconover
The circulatory, lymphatic, and respiratory systems work together to transport nutrients, gases, and waste throughout the body. The cardiovascular system uses the heart, blood vessels and blood to carry oxygen and nutrients to cells and remove waste. Blood contains plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. The lymphatic system returns fluids leaked from tissues to the bloodstream and fights pathogens using lymph nodes and vessels. The respiratory system takes in oxygen through the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs where gas exchange occurs in alveoli, then expels carbon dioxide.
The cardiovascular and respiratory systems work together to supply oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide.
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. It circulates blood throughout the body, transporting oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste.
The respiratory system brings air into the lungs through inspiration and removes carbon dioxide through expiration. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs as oxygen diffuses into blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Both systems respond to exercise through increased heart rate, blood flow, ventilation, and oxygen consumption to meet the higher demand of working muscles.
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood received from the lungs through the arteries to the body's tissues, and deoxygenated blood returns to the heart via veins to be re-oxygenated in the lungs. The circulatory system transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and waste products throughout the body and helps fight infections through white blood cells.
The document provides an overview of 11 human body systems: digestive, urinary, respiratory, circulatory, skeletal, muscular, nervous, integumentary, immune, endocrine, and reproductive. For each system, the key organs and their functions are described. Common diseases associated with each system are also listed. The document emphasizes how body systems work interdependently, with the circulatory system connecting many organs and the nervous system coordinating responses across systems.
The human circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest that pumps blood through the entire body using the blood vessels. It has four chambers - the right and left atria receive blood while the right and left ventricles pump blood out of the heart. The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Maintaining a healthy heart is important to prevent diseases like heart attacks and strokes.
This document summarizes the three main types of granulocytes in human blood: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Granulocytes are a group of white blood cells characterized by granules in their cytoplasm. They are the most numerous white cells and are larger than red blood cells. The three types are distinguished by the color their granules stain when treated with dye. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils play important roles in the inflammatory response.
Similar to Topic 6: Human Health and Physiology (20)
Abnormal Psychology: Concepts of NormalityMackenzie
Notes for section 5.1 of my psych textbook for the option of "Abnormal Psychology" on the I.B. HL Psychology test. All about cultural norms, normal vs. abnormal, diagnosing processes,validity and whatnot.
Notes on one of the IB HL Psychology options: Health. All about stress: its biological, cognitive, and social factors. Good advice too for those of us stressed out by IB testing!
Sociocultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural NormsMackenzie
This document discusses social and cultural norms and how they influence behavior. It describes norms as rules based on shared cultural beliefs about appropriate behavior. Humans conform to norms to belong to social groups. Social learning theory holds that people learn behaviors by observing and imitating models. Factors like attention, retention, motivation, and rewards/punishment impact whether behaviors are learned. Studies show children imitate aggressive behaviors modeled by adults. Cultural dimensions also influence behavior, with individualist versus collectivist cultures and uncertainty avoidance impacting conformity. Cultural norms are passed down through generations and regulate behaviors within groups.
Sociocultural Level of Analysis: Sociocultural CognitionMackenzie
Notes from chapter 4.1 in my IB HL Psychology textbook! All about the Sociocultural Level of Analysis, culture, attribution, norms, stereotypes, and whatnot.
1. Happiness is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, with about 50% due to genetics and 40% influenced by individual choices and behaviors.
2. While wealth and high social status do not necessarily correlate with happiness, factors like strong social relationships, generosity, gratitude, and focusing on present moments rather than future goals are consistently linked to greater well-being.
3. Societal factors like income equality, a functioning democracy, and a culture that prioritizes community and spiritual fulfillment over productivity can contribute to higher average life satisfaction at the national level.
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognition and EmotionMackenzie
Section 3.2 of my IB HL Psychology text book all about cognition and emotion at the Cognitive Level of Analysis. Discusses the biology behind emotions and how this affects stress and memory. Short section!
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognitive ProcessesMackenzie
This document discusses cognitive psychology and cognitive processes. It provides information on key topics including:
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- Cognitive psychology studies how the human mind acquires and uses knowledge through cognitive processes and representations.
- Working memory models have evolved from a single-store model to include multiple components like the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.
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- Technology like PET scans and MRI scans have provided insights into brain activity during cognitive tasks.
This document discusses three levels of analysis for criminal behavior: biological, cognitive, and sociocultural. At the biological level, factors like genetics, brain abnormalities, and neurotransmitter imbalances can increase risk, though on their own are not determinative. The cognitive level examines criminal thinking patterns and decision-making processes. The sociocultural level considers environmental influences such as poverty, unemployment, and social labeling that can interact with biological predispositions to influence criminal outcomes. A multi-factorial approach is needed to fully understand criminal behavior.
Biological Level of Analysis: Genetics and BehaviorMackenzie
This document discusses several key topics related to the biological level of analysis of genetics and behavior:
- Behavioral genetics aims to understand the interplay between genetics and environment in influencing behavior. While single genes do not determine complex behaviors, genetic predispositions can manifest depending on environmental stimuli.
- Studies of twins, families, adoptions, and intelligence have provided evidence both for genetic influences on behaviors like IQ as well as environmental factors. Heritability of traits like IQ may increase with age due to gene-environment interactions.
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Biological Level of Analysis: Physiology and BehaviorMackenzie
This document discusses the biological level of analysis in psychology. It explains that human behavior has physiological origins and is influenced by biological factors like the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genes. Behavior is also affected by environmental stimuli interacting with biological systems. The nature vs nurture debate is addressed, noting that both biological and environmental factors contribute to behavior. Research methods like brain imaging, studies of brain damage, and animal research provide insights into the biological bases of behavior. Key topics covered include neurotransmission, the effects of drugs and hormones, brain plasticity, and seasonal affective disorder.
1. The document discusses key concepts in ecology and evolution including species identification using keys, binomial nomenclature, hierarchical classification of taxa, plant and animal classification, population changes, population growth curves, evidence and mechanisms of evolution, trophic levels and food webs, energy flow through ecosystems, nutrient recycling, and the impacts of climate change.
2. It provides information on classifying and identifying organisms, population dynamics, and ecological relationships and energy transfer between organisms and the environment.
3. The rising levels of greenhouse gases and global temperatures are also summarized, along with potential environmental and biological consequences of climate change.
Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living things. There are two main types of cells - prokaryotic cells, which lack organelles and a nucleus, and eukaryotic cells, which have organelles and a nucleus bounded by a nuclear envelope. The cell membrane controls what enters and exits the cell. Cells reproduce through mitosis, where the genetic material is duplicated and the cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Cancer occurs when cell division is uncontrolled, forming tumors.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
2. Taking in Food
• Absorption: food passes through a layer of
cells into the body’s tissues
– Takes place in the small intestines
– Uses villi: small finger-like projections from
the wall of the small intestine
• Assimilated: after food is absorbed it
becomes part of the tissues of the body
3. The Need for Digestion
• Some substances are not suitable for absorption
into human tissues and so must be broken down
and reassembled into another form
• Many molecules are too large to be absorbed by
the villi and so must be broken down in size
• Three main types of food molecule that need to be
digested:
1. Starch
2. Protein
3. Triglycerides (fats and oils)
4. Enzymes of Digestion
Enzyme Amylase Protease Lipase
Example Salivary amylase Pepsin Pancreatic lipase
Location Salivary glands Wall of stomach Pancreas
Substrate (what
it breaks down)
Starch Proteins Triglycerides (fats
and oils)
Products Maltose Small
polypeptides
Fatty Acids and
Glycerol
Optimum pH
level
pH 7 Ph 1.5 Ph 7
6. Structure of Villi and their Functions
• Villi increase the surface area over which food is
absorbed
• Have only one thin layer of cells (the epithelium)
that foods have to pass through
– Small distance for diffusion of foods
• Have microvilli to increase the surface area of the
villi
• In microvilli, protein channels allow facilitated
diffusion and pumps allow active transport
– Mitochondria in the epithelium provide the ATP for this
active transport
• Lacteal branch in the villi’s center carries away
fats after absorption
7. Stomach and Intestines Functions
• Pepsin in the stomach digests proteins in
the stomach
• Acidity of the stomach kills most bacteria
• Villi in the small intestine absorb finished
products of digestion
• Ingestible parts of food are made solid as
water is absorbed by the large intestine
• Egested through the anus
8. Heart Structure
• Double pump: right side pumps blood to the
lungs; left side pumps blood to all other
organs
• Myogenic: the cardiac muscle of the heart
contracts on its own w/o nerve stimulus
• There are many capillaries in the muscular
wall of the heart (blood in capillaries is
supplied by coronary arteries)
• Blood brought by coronary arteries bring
nutrients and oxygen for aerobic cell
respiration (which produces energy for
cardiac muscle contraction)
9. Heart Diagram
• Always draw the left
ventricle on the right
• Draw the left ventricle
visibly thicker than the
right ventricle
10. Arteries
• Arteries: carry blood from the heart
– Thick wall to withstand high pressures
– Thick outer layer to avoid bulges and leaks
– Thick layers of elastic and muscle to help
pump the blood on after each heart beat
– Narrow lumen to help maintain high pressure
11. Veins
• Veins: carry blood to the heart
– Thin layers with thin elastic and muscle; blood
does not need to be pumped
– Wide lumen is needed to accommodate the
slow-flowing blood
– Thin walls let the veins be pressed flat by
adjacent muscles; help moves the blood
– Thin outer layer because there is little danger
of bursting
– Some have valves to prevent back-flow
12. Capillaries
• Capillaries: connect arteries to veins
– Wall is a single layer of thin cells so diffusion
has a small distance
– Pores between cells in the wall allow some
phagocytes and some plasma to leak out
which forms tissue fluid
– Very narrow lumen; can fit into small spaces
13. The Action of the Heart
1. Walls of the atria contract, pushing blood into the
open atrioventricular valves and into the
ventricles, which have closed semilunar valves
2. The ventricles fill and blood pressure rises. The
atrioventricular valves close and the semilunar
valves open, so blood is pumped out of the
arteries. Meanwhile, more blood is filling into the
atria.
3. The ventricles stop contracting and the semilunar
valve closes. The atrioventricular valves reopen
when the ventricles have lower pressure than the
atria.
4. Process repeats
14. Control of the Heart Beat
• Pacemaker: region located in the wall of
the right atrium; its signal causes the heart
to contract (beat)
• Nerves and hormones can transmit
messages to the pacemaker
– Nerves carry messages to the pacemaker to
speed up or slow down the contractions
– Adrenalin (carried by the blood stream) tells
the pacemaker to speed up
15. Composition of Blood
• Blood is composed of plasma,
erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes
(white blood cells), and platelets
• Two types of leukocytes: lymphocytes and
phagocytes
16. Functions of Blood
• Two main functions of blood:
1. Transportation
2. Defense against infectious disease
• Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to
cells
• Blood plasma transports
– Nutrients
– Carbon dioxide
– Hormones
– Antibodies
– Urea
• Blood also transports heat
• Leukocytes defend the body against infectious
diseases
17. Phagocytes
• Phagocytes: white blood cells that can
identify pathogens and ingest them by
endocytosis
• Pathogens: organism or virus that causes
disease
18. Antibodies
• Antibodies: proteins that recognized and
bind to specific antigens
• Antigens: foreign substances that
stimulate the production of antibodies
• Antibodies defend the body against
pathogens by binding to antigens on the
surface of a pathogen
19. Barriers to Infection
• Skin and mucous membranes form a
barrier that prevents most pathogens from
entering the body
– The skin is acidic
– Mucus found in nose, trachea, vagina, and
urethra
• Contains an enzyme that kills bacteria
20. Antibiotics
• Antibiotics: chemicals produced by
microorganisms to kill or control the
growth of other microorganisms
• Most bacterial diseases can be treated
successfully with antibiotics
• Virus diseases can not be treated with
antibiotics
21. Production of Antibodies
1. Antibodies are made by lymphocytes (type
of white blood cell)
1. Lymphocytes can only make specific types of
antibodies
2. Antibodies form on the surface of
lymphocytes
3. When antigens come in contact with these
antibodies, the lymphocite divides by mitosis
to produce clones of itself
4. These clones also produce the antibodies to
attack the antigen
22. AIDS
• AIDS is a syndrome: group of symptoms
that are found together
• Those with AIDS have low numbers of one
type of lymphocyte, weight loss, and
diseases
• These diseases weaken the body and
eventually cause death
23. Cause of AIDS
• HIV causes Aids
• Infects a type of lymphocyte and
eventually destroys these lymphocytes—
stopping production of these antibodies
• This leaves the body vulnerable to
pathogens that would normally be
controlled easily
24. Transmission of AIDS
• HIV can’t pass through skin and does not
survive long outside of the body
• Transmission involves the transfer of body
fluids from an infected person to an
uninfected person
25. Need for Gas Exchange/Ventilation
• Humans must take in oxygen for cell
respiration and release carbon dioxide
• Gas exchange: swapping one gas for
another in the alveoli of the human lungs
• Ventilation: the process of bringing fresh
air to the alveoli and removing stale air to
maintain concentration gradients
necessary for gas exchange
27. Adaptations of the Alveolus to Gas Exchange
• Millions of alveoli create a huge overall
surface area for gas exchange
• Alveolus walls are a single layer of cells;
gases only have to diffuse a short distance
• Alveolus is covered by blood capillaries
that oxygen diffuses into in place of CO2
• Alveolus is moist inside and the sides are
prevented from sticking together
28. Ventilation of the Lungs
Inhaling Exhaling
External intercostal muscles contract,
moving the ribcage up and out
Internal intercostal muscles contract,
moving the ribcage down and in
Diaphragm contracts, becoming flatter
and moving down
Abdominal muscles contract, pushing
the diaphragm up into a dome shape
Muscle movements increase the
volume of the thorax
Muscle movements decrease the
volume of the thorax
Pressure inside the thorax is lower
than the pressure outside
Pressure inside the thorax is higher
than the pressure outside
Air flows from outside the body into
the lungs until the pressure rises
Air flows from inside the body outside
until the pressure falls
29. Organization of Nervous System
• Neurons: cells that carry messages at high
speed in the form of electrical impulses
• Two parts of the Nervous System:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and
spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System: nerves that
connect all parts of the body to the CNS
30. Sensory and Motor Neurons
• Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses
from receptors (sensory cells) to the CNS
• Motor neurons carry impulses from the
CNS to effectors (muscle and gland cells)
• Relay neurons carry impulses within the
CNS from one neuron to another
32. Synaptic Transmission
1. Nerve impulse reaches the end of the pre-synaptic neuron
2. Calcium diffuses in through calcium channels into the pre-
synaptic neuron
3. Vesicles of neurotransmitters fuse with the pre-synaptic
membrane and release their neurotransmitters
4. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and
binds to receptors
5. Sodium and other positively charge ions diffuse into the
post-synaptic neuron; causing depolarization of the post-
synaptic membrane
6. Depolarization causes action potential
7. Calcium is pumped out. Neurotransmitter is broken down
in the cleft and reabsorbed into the veins.
33. Resting/Action Potentials
• Resting Potential: electrical potential
across the plasma membrane of a cell that
is not conducting an impulse
• Acting Potential: reversal and restoration
of the electrical potential across the
plasma membrane of a cell, as an
electrical impulse passes along it
(depolarization and repolarization)
34. Passage of Nerve Impulse
1. Action potentials develop and reduce the resting
potential; causes voltage-gated channels to open
2. Sodium channels open, reduces membrane
potential, causing more channels to open.
Positively charged Sodium ions cause a net
positive charge to develop; reversing the
membrane potential (this is depolarization)
3. Potassium channels open and positive potassium
ions leave causing the membrane potential to fall
back to a negative charge (this is repolarization)
4. Potassium and sodium levels are balanced and
resting potential returns; waiting for the next
impulse
35. Homeostasis
• Homeostasis: maintaining the internal
environment of the body between limits
• Nervous system and Endocrine system
are both involved in controlling:
– Body temperature
– Blood pH
– Carbon dioxide concentration
– Blood glucose concentration
– Water balance
37. Controlling Levels
• Feedback system: level of a product feeds
back to control the rate of its own
production
• Negative Feedback system: change in
level causes the opposite change;
increase in product leads to decrease in
production and vice versa
38. Responses to Overheating
• Skin arterioles become wider so more
blood flows through the skin; temperature
of skin rises so more heat is lost to the
environment
• Skeletal muscles remain relaxed and
resting so they do not generate heat
• Sweat glands secrete seat to make the
surface of the skin damp; water
evaporates from the skin for a cooling
effect
39. Response to Chilling
• Skin arterioles become narrower and bring
less blood to the skin, so less heat is lost
to the environment
• Skeletal muscles shiver to generate heat
(small rapid muscle contractions)
• Sweat glands do not secrete sweat to
keep the skin dry
40. Responses to High Blood Glucose Levels
• Beta cells in the pancreatic islets produce
insulin
• Insulin stimulates the liver and muscle
cells to convert glucose to glycogen
• Glycogen is stored in the cytoplasm
• Cells use the glucose for cell respiration
• This lowers the blood glucose level
41. Responses to Low Blood Glucose Levels
• Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets produce
glucagon
• Glucagon stimulates liver cells to break
down glycogen into glucose
• Glucose is released it to the blood
• Blood glucose level rises
42. Diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes Type 2 Diabetes
The onset is usually during childhood The onset is usually after childhood
Beta cells do not produce enough
insulin
Target cells become insensitive to
insulin
Insulin injections are used to control
blood glucose levels
Insulin injections are not usually
needed
Diet cannot by itself control the
condition
Low carbohydrate diets usually control
the condition
44. Female Sex Hormones
• The pituitary gland produces FSH and LH
• FSH stimulates the development of follicles
(contain egg cell)
• LH stimulates follicles to mature and release
eggs (ovulation) and develop into the corpus
luteum
• Estrogen and Progesterone stimulate creation
of secondary sexual characteristics and
development of uterus lining for pregnancy
46. Testosterone
• Testosterone is responsible for:
– Development of genitalia on fetus
– Development of secondary sexual
characteristics during puberty (example: pubic
hair)
– Maintenance of the sex drive in adulthood to
pass on genes to offspring
48. Infertility
• Infertility: couples do not achieve
fertilization for a temporary or permanent
time span
• Some problems can be solved with in vitro
fertilization
49. In Vitro Fertilization
1. Woman’s normal cycle is stopped using drugs
2. FSH is injected to stimulate ovaries to develop
many follicles
3. HGG matures and loosens eggs in the follicles
4. Sperm is collected and processed
5. Eggs are extracted from the follicles
6. Eggs are mixed with sperm and incubated
7. Two or three embryos are selected and placed into
the uterus
8. Pregnancy test is used to see if any embryos have
implanted
50. Ethical Issues of IVF
Ethical arguments against IVF Ethical arguments for IVF
Inherited forms of infertility might be
passed onto the children, spreading
the suffering of the parents
Many forms of infertility are due to the
environment and so will not be passed
onto the offspring
Spare embryos are sometimes killed;
they deserve a chance at life
Embryos killed during IVF feel nothing
and do not suffer
Humans are deciding whether new
individuals survive or die
Genetic diseases could be reduced
due to screening of embryos
IVF is unnatural; not an act of love Parents willing to endure the process
are likely to be loving parents
Infertility is an act of God Infertility brings uphappiness and
loneliness. This makes people happy.