Edexcel IGCSE - Human Biology - Chapter 08 - Homeostasis and ExcretionChandima Walpita Gamage
The document summarizes homeostasis and excretion in the human body. It discusses how homeostasis regulates conditions like body temperature, pH, water, salts, glucose, and blood pressure. Disruptions to homeostasis can cause issues like changes in enzyme function, fluid overload, or increased blood pressure. The kidneys and urinary system work to excrete waste and regulate water and salt levels. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney that filters blood to form urine, reabsorbing useful molecules but removing urea and other wastes. Thermoregulatory mechanisms like sweating and shivering help maintain a stable body temperature.
1. Yeasts are single-celled microorganisms that reproduce through asexual budding.
2. Yeasts are important microorganisms that are used to make bread and alcoholic beverages through fermentation.
3. During fermentation, yeasts respire anaerobically, consuming sugars and producing alcohol and carbon dioxide.
This document provides an overview of several key topics in biology:
- Exchange of materials through active transport, gas exchange in lungs/gut/plants, and transpiration.
- Transportation in the body via the circulatory system, and the role of blood, exercise, and kidney functions like dialysis.
- Microbiology concepts like growing microbes, using yeast/bacteria for food production, large-scale fermentation, and antibiotic/biofuel production.
Sharks are able to quickly find injured prey through diffusion. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration down a concentration gradient. Injured animals release chemicals into the water that sharks can detect with their highly sensitive smell. These chemicals diffuse through the water, creating a scent trail that sharks follow to find weak or injured animals.
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body to provide nutrients and oxygen to tissues and remove waste. Red blood cells carry oxygen and carbon dioxide, containing hemoglobin which reversibly binds oxygen. White blood cells help fight infection through phagocytosis and antibody production. Platelets initiate clotting to stop bleeding from broken blood vessels. Together, blood transports substances, defends against pathogens, and maintains homeostasis.
Edexcel IGCSE - Human Biology - Chapter 08 - Homeostasis and ExcretionChandima Walpita Gamage
The document summarizes homeostasis and excretion in the human body. It discusses how homeostasis regulates conditions like body temperature, pH, water, salts, glucose, and blood pressure. Disruptions to homeostasis can cause issues like changes in enzyme function, fluid overload, or increased blood pressure. The kidneys and urinary system work to excrete waste and regulate water and salt levels. The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney that filters blood to form urine, reabsorbing useful molecules but removing urea and other wastes. Thermoregulatory mechanisms like sweating and shivering help maintain a stable body temperature.
1. Yeasts are single-celled microorganisms that reproduce through asexual budding.
2. Yeasts are important microorganisms that are used to make bread and alcoholic beverages through fermentation.
3. During fermentation, yeasts respire anaerobically, consuming sugars and producing alcohol and carbon dioxide.
This document provides an overview of several key topics in biology:
- Exchange of materials through active transport, gas exchange in lungs/gut/plants, and transpiration.
- Transportation in the body via the circulatory system, and the role of blood, exercise, and kidney functions like dialysis.
- Microbiology concepts like growing microbes, using yeast/bacteria for food production, large-scale fermentation, and antibiotic/biofuel production.
Sharks are able to quickly find injured prey through diffusion. Diffusion is the passive movement of particles from an area of high concentration to low concentration down a concentration gradient. Injured animals release chemicals into the water that sharks can detect with their highly sensitive smell. These chemicals diffuse through the water, creating a scent trail that sharks follow to find weak or injured animals.
The circulatory system transports blood throughout the body to provide nutrients and oxygen to tissues and remove waste. Red blood cells carry oxygen and carbon dioxide, containing hemoglobin which reversibly binds oxygen. White blood cells help fight infection through phagocytosis and antibody production. Platelets initiate clotting to stop bleeding from broken blood vessels. Together, blood transports substances, defends against pathogens, and maintains homeostasis.
This document discusses respiration and gas exchange. It explains that aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, releasing carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration in yeast breaks down glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide without oxygen. Anaerobic respiration in humans produces lactic acid instead of alcohol when oxygen cannot be supplied fast enough to muscles during vigorous exercise.
This document summarizes information from a biology unit on transport in plants and animals. It discusses several key topics:
- Diffusion and osmosis as mechanisms of transport across cell membranes.
- The human circulatory system, including the structure and function of the heart and blood vessels.
- Homeostasis and how the kidneys and hormones help regulate water balance, temperature, blood sugar, etc.
- Global population growth and its effects on pollution of water, air, and land.
Blood is a connective tissue that distributes oxygen and nutrients throughout the body while also protecting against infection. It is composed of plasma and formed elements, which include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and distribute oxygen, while white blood cells protect the body against infection and disease. Platelets help the blood clot to prevent blood loss from injuries. The document provides detailed information on the composition and functions of blood and its components.
The document discusses the building blocks of matter including elements, compounds, atoms, and bonds. It describes the four main types of organic compounds essential for human structure and function: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides that provide energy. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids like cholesterol. Proteins are composed of amino acids, and nucleotides include DNA and RNA which store and help express genetic information.
Homeostasis and excretion are related processes where homeostasis refers to maintaining a constant internal environment and excretion refers to removing metabolic waste products. The skin, lungs, liver, and kidneys are organs that help maintain homeostasis by regulating processes like temperature, water balance, and removal of toxins. The skin specifically regulates temperature through blood flow, sweat glands, and erector muscles in the dermis and helps remove some waste through sweat.
Specialized cells combine to form four main tissue types in humans and animals - connective, epithelial, nervous, and muscle tissue. Connective tissue supports and connects parts of the body, epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, nervous tissue makes up the brain and spinal cord, and muscle tissue allows movement. Cells also combine to form three tissue types in plants - photosynthetic tissue uses sunlight to produce energy, protective tissue forms a waterproof layer, and transport tissue moves food and water.
The document discusses the circulatory system and blood transport in animals. It describes single and double circulatory systems. In a single circulation, blood travels from the heart to the gills to absorb oxygen and then to the organs before returning to the heart. In a double circulation, there are two circuits - one where blood passes from the heart to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide, and another where blood passes from the heart to the organs and tissues to deliver oxygen before returning to the heart. A double circulation has evolved to create more pressure to pump blood around the system and separate oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.
The document summarizes the circulatory system. It discusses that humans have a closed, double circulatory system consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the heart. The heart pumps blood through the arteries, capillaries, and veins, carrying oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removing waste. Various activities describe the cellular components of blood and their functions, compare the structures and functions of different blood vessels, label the structures of the heart, and explain the flow of blood and pumping action of the heart.
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory and immune systems. It is made up of lymphatic vessels, ducts, and nodes that transport lymph fluid throughout the body. Interstitial fluid is formed from blood in capillaries and carries nutrients to cells, before 10% drains into lymphatic capillaries as lymph. Lymph is moved through the lymphatic system by muscle movement and flows into the subclavian veins. The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes that help fight infection.
The document discusses several topics related to human health and physiology:
1. It describes the process of digestion, including ingestion, digestion, absorption, and transport of nutrients through the circulatory system. Key digestive enzymes and organs involved in digestion like the stomach and small intestine are explained.
2. The transport system is summarized, including the structure and double pump function of the heart to circulate blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations to lungs and body respectively via arteries, arterioles, capillaries and veins.
3. Defence against infectious diseases is briefly covered, noting that pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi can cause disease, and that antibiotics work by selectively targeting differences between bacterial and human cells
1. The document discusses the transport system in multicellular organisms and the components and functions of blood.
2. Blood consists of plasma and three main types of blood cells - red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
3. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. White blood cells protect the body from infection. Platelets are involved in blood clotting.
The document provides an overview of the human digestive system. It describes the functions of key organs including the mouth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive process involves ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption and defecation. Each organ plays an important role in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients into the bloodstream.
The lymphatic system works with the circulatory system to transport lymph, maintain fluid balance, and help fight infection. The lymphatic system is made up of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph fluid. Lymph vessels collect excess tissue fluid called interstitial fluid from between cells and return it to the bloodstream. Lymph nodes along the vessels filter out pathogens and debris. Together, the lymphatic and circulatory systems work to maintain fluid balance and transport nutrients, waste, and immune cells throughout the body.
The lymphatic system collects excess tissue fluid called lymph and returns it to the bloodstream. Lymph is similar to plasma but contains fewer proteins. The lymphatic system helps remove waste, absorb fats, and plays a role in immunity. Lymph enters lymphatic vessels from tissue fluid and is propelled through vessels by muscle contractions before emptying into subclavian veins.
The document discusses several endocrine glands and hormones, including:
- The thyroid gland, which produces thyroxine to regulate metabolic rate. Thyroxine increases oxygen consumption and protein synthesis.
- The pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels through a negative feedback system. Insulin lowers blood glucose while glucagon raises it.
- The adrenal glands, which produce adrenaline during stressful situations to trigger the fight or flight response through various physiological effects.
The respiratory system allows for gas exchange in humans. Air enters through the nose or mouth and passes through the trachea into the lungs. In the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles that end in alveoli, which are tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen from the inhaled air passes into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide passes from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. Breathing is driven by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contracting and relaxing to expand and contract the lungs and chest.
This document provides an overview of respiration in biology form 4 students. It begins by outlining the key objectives and concepts to be covered, including the respiratory processes in energy production, respiratory structures in humans and animals, gaseous exchange, and more. It then delves into various topics, defining external and internal respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration, and explaining how organisms convert energy stored in food into energy for the body through cellular respiration. Details are given on the respiratory structures and mechanisms in different organisms like humans, insects, earthworms, and more.
The liver plays a key role in metabolism and homeostasis. It receives a dual blood supply and filters waste from the blood to produce urea, which is excreted. Excess alcohol is broken down but can overload the liver, causing fatty deposits. The kidneys filter blood to produce urine via nephrons and selective reabsorption maintains electrolyte balance. Kidney failure requires dialysis or transplant. Pregnancy and drug tests analyze samples for target hormones or compounds.
There are four main types of animal tissues: muscular, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissue. Muscular tissue includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Nervous tissue contains neurons and glial cells that help conduct electrical signals. Connective tissue includes several types that provide binding, support, protection and storage functions. Epithelial tissue has cell shapes and layers that act as barriers and aid movement of materials. The document then lists and briefly describes the 11 major organ systems in animals and their functions, including the muscular, digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, lymphatic, excretory, endocrine, reproductive, nervous, skeletal and skin systems.
This document summarizes the key components of a cell's chemical composition. It discusses the main macromolecules that make up cells, including water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Water is the most abundant component, making up 65-95% of plant cells and 80% of human cells. It plays important roles in temperature regulation, acting as a solvent, and transporting minerals within cells. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and other elements. They serve important functions like energy storage and insulation. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA contain genetic information and are involved in protein synthesis. DNA resides in the cell nucleus while RNA is found in the
The document discusses the importance of water and its properties. Water is a polar molecule with unequal charge distribution, allowing it to dissolve many ionic and polar compounds. Water molecules are also attracted to each other through hydrogen bonding. This property allows water to absorb large amounts of heat, maintaining stable conditions for organisms. The document also summarizes the key biomolecules that make up living things: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It describes the basic monomers, polymers, and functions of each biomolecule.
This document discusses respiration and gas exchange. It explains that aerobic respiration uses oxygen to break down glucose, releasing carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic respiration in yeast breaks down glucose into alcohol and carbon dioxide without oxygen. Anaerobic respiration in humans produces lactic acid instead of alcohol when oxygen cannot be supplied fast enough to muscles during vigorous exercise.
This document summarizes information from a biology unit on transport in plants and animals. It discusses several key topics:
- Diffusion and osmosis as mechanisms of transport across cell membranes.
- The human circulatory system, including the structure and function of the heart and blood vessels.
- Homeostasis and how the kidneys and hormones help regulate water balance, temperature, blood sugar, etc.
- Global population growth and its effects on pollution of water, air, and land.
Blood is a connective tissue that distributes oxygen and nutrients throughout the body while also protecting against infection. It is composed of plasma and formed elements, which include red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and distribute oxygen, while white blood cells protect the body against infection and disease. Platelets help the blood clot to prevent blood loss from injuries. The document provides detailed information on the composition and functions of blood and its components.
The document discusses the building blocks of matter including elements, compounds, atoms, and bonds. It describes the four main types of organic compounds essential for human structure and function: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides that provide energy. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids like cholesterol. Proteins are composed of amino acids, and nucleotides include DNA and RNA which store and help express genetic information.
Homeostasis and excretion are related processes where homeostasis refers to maintaining a constant internal environment and excretion refers to removing metabolic waste products. The skin, lungs, liver, and kidneys are organs that help maintain homeostasis by regulating processes like temperature, water balance, and removal of toxins. The skin specifically regulates temperature through blood flow, sweat glands, and erector muscles in the dermis and helps remove some waste through sweat.
Specialized cells combine to form four main tissue types in humans and animals - connective, epithelial, nervous, and muscle tissue. Connective tissue supports and connects parts of the body, epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs, nervous tissue makes up the brain and spinal cord, and muscle tissue allows movement. Cells also combine to form three tissue types in plants - photosynthetic tissue uses sunlight to produce energy, protective tissue forms a waterproof layer, and transport tissue moves food and water.
The document discusses the circulatory system and blood transport in animals. It describes single and double circulatory systems. In a single circulation, blood travels from the heart to the gills to absorb oxygen and then to the organs before returning to the heart. In a double circulation, there are two circuits - one where blood passes from the heart to the lungs to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide, and another where blood passes from the heart to the organs and tissues to deliver oxygen before returning to the heart. A double circulation has evolved to create more pressure to pump blood around the system and separate oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood.
The document summarizes the circulatory system. It discusses that humans have a closed, double circulatory system consisting of blood, blood vessels, and the heart. The heart pumps blood through the arteries, capillaries, and veins, carrying oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removing waste. Various activities describe the cellular components of blood and their functions, compare the structures and functions of different blood vessels, label the structures of the heart, and explain the flow of blood and pumping action of the heart.
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory and immune systems. It is made up of lymphatic vessels, ducts, and nodes that transport lymph fluid throughout the body. Interstitial fluid is formed from blood in capillaries and carries nutrients to cells, before 10% drains into lymphatic capillaries as lymph. Lymph is moved through the lymphatic system by muscle movement and flows into the subclavian veins. The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes that help fight infection.
The document discusses several topics related to human health and physiology:
1. It describes the process of digestion, including ingestion, digestion, absorption, and transport of nutrients through the circulatory system. Key digestive enzymes and organs involved in digestion like the stomach and small intestine are explained.
2. The transport system is summarized, including the structure and double pump function of the heart to circulate blood through the pulmonary and systemic circulations to lungs and body respectively via arteries, arterioles, capillaries and veins.
3. Defence against infectious diseases is briefly covered, noting that pathogens like viruses, bacteria, fungi can cause disease, and that antibiotics work by selectively targeting differences between bacterial and human cells
1. The document discusses the transport system in multicellular organisms and the components and functions of blood.
2. Blood consists of plasma and three main types of blood cells - red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
3. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. White blood cells protect the body from infection. Platelets are involved in blood clotting.
The document provides an overview of the human digestive system. It describes the functions of key organs including the mouth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive process involves ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical digestion, absorption and defecation. Each organ plays an important role in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients into the bloodstream.
The lymphatic system works with the circulatory system to transport lymph, maintain fluid balance, and help fight infection. The lymphatic system is made up of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph fluid. Lymph vessels collect excess tissue fluid called interstitial fluid from between cells and return it to the bloodstream. Lymph nodes along the vessels filter out pathogens and debris. Together, the lymphatic and circulatory systems work to maintain fluid balance and transport nutrients, waste, and immune cells throughout the body.
The lymphatic system collects excess tissue fluid called lymph and returns it to the bloodstream. Lymph is similar to plasma but contains fewer proteins. The lymphatic system helps remove waste, absorb fats, and plays a role in immunity. Lymph enters lymphatic vessels from tissue fluid and is propelled through vessels by muscle contractions before emptying into subclavian veins.
The document discusses several endocrine glands and hormones, including:
- The thyroid gland, which produces thyroxine to regulate metabolic rate. Thyroxine increases oxygen consumption and protein synthesis.
- The pancreas, which produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose levels through a negative feedback system. Insulin lowers blood glucose while glucagon raises it.
- The adrenal glands, which produce adrenaline during stressful situations to trigger the fight or flight response through various physiological effects.
The respiratory system allows for gas exchange in humans. Air enters through the nose or mouth and passes through the trachea into the lungs. In the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles that end in alveoli, which are tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen from the inhaled air passes into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide passes from the bloodstream into the alveoli to be exhaled. Breathing is driven by the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contracting and relaxing to expand and contract the lungs and chest.
This document provides an overview of respiration in biology form 4 students. It begins by outlining the key objectives and concepts to be covered, including the respiratory processes in energy production, respiratory structures in humans and animals, gaseous exchange, and more. It then delves into various topics, defining external and internal respiration, aerobic and anaerobic respiration, and explaining how organisms convert energy stored in food into energy for the body through cellular respiration. Details are given on the respiratory structures and mechanisms in different organisms like humans, insects, earthworms, and more.
The liver plays a key role in metabolism and homeostasis. It receives a dual blood supply and filters waste from the blood to produce urea, which is excreted. Excess alcohol is broken down but can overload the liver, causing fatty deposits. The kidneys filter blood to produce urine via nephrons and selective reabsorption maintains electrolyte balance. Kidney failure requires dialysis or transplant. Pregnancy and drug tests analyze samples for target hormones or compounds.
There are four main types of animal tissues: muscular, nervous, connective, and epithelial tissue. Muscular tissue includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Nervous tissue contains neurons and glial cells that help conduct electrical signals. Connective tissue includes several types that provide binding, support, protection and storage functions. Epithelial tissue has cell shapes and layers that act as barriers and aid movement of materials. The document then lists and briefly describes the 11 major organ systems in animals and their functions, including the muscular, digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular, lymphatic, excretory, endocrine, reproductive, nervous, skeletal and skin systems.
This document summarizes the key components of a cell's chemical composition. It discusses the main macromolecules that make up cells, including water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Water is the most abundant component, making up 65-95% of plant cells and 80% of human cells. It plays important roles in temperature regulation, acting as a solvent, and transporting minerals within cells. Carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and other elements. They serve important functions like energy storage and insulation. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA contain genetic information and are involved in protein synthesis. DNA resides in the cell nucleus while RNA is found in the
The document discusses the importance of water and its properties. Water is a polar molecule with unequal charge distribution, allowing it to dissolve many ionic and polar compounds. Water molecules are also attracted to each other through hydrogen bonding. This property allows water to absorb large amounts of heat, maintaining stable conditions for organisms. The document also summarizes the key biomolecules that make up living things: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It describes the basic monomers, polymers, and functions of each biomolecule.
Organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are made up of carbon chains and functional groups that allow for great diversity. Carbon forms the backbone of these biomolecules and its ability to form single, double, or triple bonds with other elements allows it to link together into large complex structures. These molecules carry out essential functions in cells like energy storage, structure, metabolism, and information transfer. The specific sequences and structures of proteins and nucleic acids are vital to their roles.
This document provides an overview of macromolecules including their structure, function, and importance in living organisms. It discusses the key macromolecules of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. For each macromolecule, it describes the monomers used to build polymers, examples of different types, and their roles in cells. The document emphasizes that macromolecules are constructed through condensation reactions from simple monomers into complex polymers with unique properties essential for life.
This document provides an overview of the key biomolecules found within cells, including their structure and functions. It discusses the roles of water, carbohydrates like glucose and glycogen, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. These biomolecules are involved in essential cellular processes like metabolism, protein synthesis, and storage of genetic information. The document also examines how biomolecules interact and are organized within cells and cellular structures.
Mitochondria & choloroplat- Energy Harness Final old microsoft version.pptJanzaib
This document discusses the functions of cell organelles in obtaining and utilizing energy from food. Mitochondria and chloroplasts play key roles. Mitochondria break down sugars and fats through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain to generate ATP. Chloroplasts use photosynthesis to harness sunlight to produce sugars from CO2 and release oxygen. Photosynthesis involves light and dark reactions that generate ATP and NADPH to fix carbon and produce glucose that can be stored or used for energy. Both organelles breakdown and regenerate ATP to power cellular work through membrane-based mechanisms.
Metabolism refers to the sum of all chemical reactions in the body's cells. It allows the generation of energy from nutrients and the production of biological compounds. Metabolic pathways include glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and the electron transport chain. Metabolism takes place within cells, with the mitochondria being the main site of aerobic metabolism. The liver plays a key role in metabolizing nutrients from food. Metabolic reactions are regulated by enzymes and hormones. ATP is the main energy currency of cells and is produced through both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol can all be metabolized to produce energy.
This document summarizes key biological molecules and concepts. It discusses the structures and functions of water, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. Additionally, it covers enzymes, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, genetics, evolution, and classification of living things. The roles of these molecules, structures, and processes in living organisms are described in concise bullet points and paragraphs.
This presentation discusses microbial metabolism. It begins by defining metabolism as the sum of all chemical reactions within a cell and separates metabolism into catabolism, which releases energy, and anabolism, which uses that energy for biosynthesis. The key points are that cells use exergonic reactions to power endergonic reactions, with ATP serving as the energy currency. Metabolic pathways involve enzymes, electron carriers like NADH, and precursor metabolites that can be used for biosynthesis or completely oxidized for energy. Central pathways discussed include glycolysis, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
Organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are made up of carbon chains and functional groups that allow for great diversity. These biomolecules have important functions like energy storage, structure, and metabolism. The information in DNA is copied into RNA and translated to proteins, which take on complex 3D shapes essential to their roles in the cell. ATP carries energy within cells to power biochemical reactions.
The document provides information on carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and enzymes. It defines each biomolecule and describes their basic components and structures. Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and can be monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides. Proteins contain amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures. Lipids are nonpolar and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions and have optimal pH and temperature ranges for activity. They act specifically by binding substrates in their active sites.
9 - Metabolism and Transfering Energy - Part TwoAhmad V.Kashani
سلولهای زنده برای انجام بسیاری از وظایف خود به انتقال انرژی از منابع خارجی نیاز دارند. همه ارگانیسمها باید از طریق فتوسنتز و تنفس سلولی این انرژی را از مولکول های آلی موجود درغذا بدست آورند. تنفس با استفاده از اکسیژن و تولید ATP، باعث شکستن این سوخت میشود. مواد زائد این نوع تنفس، دی اکسید کربن و آب، مواد اولیه فتوسنتز هستند. در این اسلاید، من سعی می کنم چگونگی برداشت سلولها از انرژی ذخیره شده در مولکولهای آلی و استفاده از آن برای تولید ATP از طریق تنفس سلولی را توضیح دهم.
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Living cells require transfusions of energy from outside sources to perform their many tasks. All organism need to obtain this energy from organic molecules of food through photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Respiration breaks this fuel down, using oxygen and generating ATP. The waste products of this type of respiration, carbon dioxide and water, are the raw materials for photosynthesis. In this slide, I try to explain how cells harvest this energy stored in organic molecules and used it to generate ATP through cellular respiration.
This document summarizes key concepts about biomolecules and human physiology. It discusses the four major classes of biomolecules - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleotides - including their structures, functions, and examples. It also describes protein structure and interactions, including binding sites, affinity, competition, and modulation of binding. Overall, the document provides a concise overview of fundamental biochemical concepts and biomolecules important for human physiology.
This document provides an overview of metabolism and nucleic acids. It begins by defining metabolism as the sum of all chemical processes in an organism and describes catabolism as the breakdown of molecules and anabolism as building up molecules. ATP is discussed as the energy currency of cells. Nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, are introduced as carriers of genetic information. DNA is a double helix that replicates via base pairing, while RNA aids in protein synthesis. The roles of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are summarized. Genetic engineering techniques like DNA fingerprinting and cloning are also mentioned.
3 - Chemical Composition of the Cell - Part 2Ahmad V.Kashani
The document outlines the key biomolecules - lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It describes how lipids such as fats, phospholipids, and steroids are made up of nonpolar tails and polar heads that allow them to perform structural and energy storage functions. Proteins are composed of amino acid polymers that fold into primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures to enable their diverse catalytic, defensive, and structural roles. Nucleic acids DNA and RNA are made of nucleotides with pentose sugars, nitrogenous bases, and phosphate groups that encode genes and genetic information.
This document discusses carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. It defines organic compounds and identifies examples like glucose, ribose, and fatty acids. It lists examples of monosaccharides (glucose, galactose, fructose), disaccharides (maltose, lactose, sucrose), and polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose). It describes the functions of glucose, lactose, glycogen in animals and fructose, sucrose, cellulose in plants. Condensation and hydrolysis reactions are described in forming monomers, dimers, and polymers of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Lipid functions include energy storage, insulation, and structural roles. Carbohydrates and lipids are compared
Ap bio ch 3 Functional Groups & Macromoleculeszernwoman
1. Organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are made up of monomers linked together through covalent bonds.
2. Carbon is a versatile building block due to its ability to form four covalent bonds (tetravalency). This allows it to link to other carbon atoms to form chains, branches, and rings.
3. Organic molecules contain functional groups that influence their chemical properties. Common functional groups include hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate groups.
4. The structure and bonding of organic molecules contribute to isomerism, including structural, geometric, and enantiomer isomers. Spatial arrangement of atoms and groups affects molecular properties.
Abnormal Psychology: Concepts of NormalityMackenzie
Notes for section 5.1 of my psych textbook for the option of "Abnormal Psychology" on the I.B. HL Psychology test. All about cultural norms, normal vs. abnormal, diagnosing processes,validity and whatnot.
Notes on one of the IB HL Psychology options: Health. All about stress: its biological, cognitive, and social factors. Good advice too for those of us stressed out by IB testing!
Sociocultural Level of Analysis: Social and Cultural NormsMackenzie
This document discusses social and cultural norms and how they influence behavior. It describes norms as rules based on shared cultural beliefs about appropriate behavior. Humans conform to norms to belong to social groups. Social learning theory holds that people learn behaviors by observing and imitating models. Factors like attention, retention, motivation, and rewards/punishment impact whether behaviors are learned. Studies show children imitate aggressive behaviors modeled by adults. Cultural dimensions also influence behavior, with individualist versus collectivist cultures and uncertainty avoidance impacting conformity. Cultural norms are passed down through generations and regulate behaviors within groups.
Sociocultural Level of Analysis: Sociocultural CognitionMackenzie
Notes from chapter 4.1 in my IB HL Psychology textbook! All about the Sociocultural Level of Analysis, culture, attribution, norms, stereotypes, and whatnot.
1. Happiness is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, with about 50% due to genetics and 40% influenced by individual choices and behaviors.
2. While wealth and high social status do not necessarily correlate with happiness, factors like strong social relationships, generosity, gratitude, and focusing on present moments rather than future goals are consistently linked to greater well-being.
3. Societal factors like income equality, a functioning democracy, and a culture that prioritizes community and spiritual fulfillment over productivity can contribute to higher average life satisfaction at the national level.
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognition and EmotionMackenzie
Section 3.2 of my IB HL Psychology text book all about cognition and emotion at the Cognitive Level of Analysis. Discusses the biology behind emotions and how this affects stress and memory. Short section!
Cognitive Level of Analysis: Cognitive ProcessesMackenzie
This document discusses cognitive psychology and cognitive processes. It provides information on key topics including:
- The mind and cognition are based on mental representations and processes like perception, memory, language, and attention.
- Cognitive psychology studies how the human mind acquires and uses knowledge through cognitive processes and representations.
- Working memory models have evolved from a single-store model to include multiple components like the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.
- Memory is reconstructive and influenced by schemas, which can lead to distortions. Eyewitness memory reliability has been questioned.
- Technology like PET scans and MRI scans have provided insights into brain activity during cognitive tasks.
This document discusses three levels of analysis for criminal behavior: biological, cognitive, and sociocultural. At the biological level, factors like genetics, brain abnormalities, and neurotransmitter imbalances can increase risk, though on their own are not determinative. The cognitive level examines criminal thinking patterns and decision-making processes. The sociocultural level considers environmental influences such as poverty, unemployment, and social labeling that can interact with biological predispositions to influence criminal outcomes. A multi-factorial approach is needed to fully understand criminal behavior.
Biological Level of Analysis: Genetics and BehaviorMackenzie
This document discusses several key topics related to the biological level of analysis of genetics and behavior:
- Behavioral genetics aims to understand the interplay between genetics and environment in influencing behavior. While single genes do not determine complex behaviors, genetic predispositions can manifest depending on environmental stimuli.
- Studies of twins, families, adoptions, and intelligence have provided evidence both for genetic influences on behaviors like IQ as well as environmental factors. Heritability of traits like IQ may increase with age due to gene-environment interactions.
- Evolutionary theories propose that natural selection favors genetic traits and behaviors that increase survival and reproduction in a given environment. Disgust responses may have evolved to protect against disease, for example.
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2. Polarity of Water
• Hydrogen pole is positive
• Oxygen pole is negative
• This makes water molecules polar
3. Hydrogen Bonding in Water
• Hydrogen bond: bond that can form
between the positive pole of one water
molecule and the negative pole of another
• Many bonds form in liquid water which
makes it useful for living organisms
4. The Properties of Water
Property name Outline Use in living organisms
Cohesion Hydrogen bonds let water
molecules stick to each other
Used as a transport
medium in plants
Solvent properties Water’s polarity allows it to
dissolve many different
substances
Water is the medium for
metabolic reactions
Heat capacity Large amounts of energy are
needed to raise water’s
temperature
Water in blood can
transfer heat
Boiling point Water has a high boiling point;
large amounts of energy are
needed to break hydrogen bonds
to turn water into a gas
Water is the medium for
metabolic reaction when it
is a liquid
Cooling effect of
evaporation
Water can evaporate at temps
below boiling point; heat energy is
taken from breaking H bonds
Water can act as a coolant
(i.e. sweat)
5. Elements in Living Organisms
• Four most common elements:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
• Other important elements:
– Sulfur, Calcium, Phosphorus, Iron, Sodium
6. Organic and Inorganic Compounds
• Organic compounds: containing carbon and
found in living organisms
• All compounds that do not contain carbon
are inorganic
• Few compounds that do contain carbon are
inorganic (Example: Carbon dioxide)
• Living organisms generally have three types
of organic compounds:
– Carbohydrates
– Lipids
– Proteins
7. Subunits of Organic
Macromolecules
• Many organic compounds are made up of
large molecules called macromolecules
• They are built up using subunits
8. Condensation Reactions
• Two molecules are joined together and
water is also formed in the reaction
• Two amino acids in a condensation
reaction create a peptide bond
• Two monosaccharides in a condensation
reaction create a disaccharide
• Fatty acids link to glyceral in a
condesnation reaction and creates
gylcerides
10. Examples of Carbohydrates
Name Example In animals In plants
Monosaccharide •Glucose
•Fructose
•Galactose
Glucose is carried
by blood to
transport energy
Fructose makes
fruit sweet to
attract animals to
disperse seeds
Disaccharide •Lactose
•Maltose
•Sucrose
Lactose is the
sugar in milk that
provides energy
Sucrose
transports energy
through the
phloem
Polysaccharide •Starch
•Gycogen
•Cullulose
Glycogen is used
for short-term
energy storage in
the liver/muscles
Cellulose makes
strong fiber to
construct the plant
cell wall
11. Functions of Lipids
• Energy storage
– Create fat in humans
– Create oil in plants
• Heat insulation
– Layer of fat under skin reduces heat loss
• Buoyancy
– Lipids are less dense than water so they can
help animals float
12. Carbohydrates and Lipids in
Energy Storage
Advantages of lipids Advantages of carbohydrates
Contain more energy per gram than
carbohydrates, making stores lighter
More easily digested than lipids,
making energy release faster
Insoluble in water and so do not effect
osmosis in cells
Soluble in water and so are easier to
transport
Usually used for long term energy
storage
Usually used for short term energy
storage
13. Nucleotide Subunits of DNA
• DNA is made of nucleotides
• Each nucleotide contains a sugar,
phosphate group, and a base
• There are four different bases found in
nucleotides:
– Adenine
– Thymine
– Guanine
– Cytosine
14. Building DNA Molecules
• Two DNA nucleotides can be linked
together by a covalent bond
– Bond forms between the sugar of one
nucleotide and the phosphate of another
• DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides
in a double helix
15. Complementary Base Pairing
• Certain nucleotide bases will only bond
with one other kind of nucleotide base
– Adenine bonds with Guanine
– Thymine bonds with Cytosine
• This is called complementary base pairing
16. DNA Replication
• Semi-conservative: each molecule formed by
replication contains one strand of the original
DNA and one new strand
• Stages of replication:
1. DNA uncoils and hydrogen bonds are broken by
the enzyme Helicase
2. Single strand acts as a template upon which
free nucleotides bond to; caused by the enzyme
Polymerase
3. New strands of DNA form double helix
17. Differences Between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Two strands of nucleotides to form a
double helix
One strand only
Deoxyribose sugar Ribose sugar
Use bases Adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine, and Thymine
Uses bases Adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine, and Uracil (instead of
Thymine)
18. Genes and Polypeptides
• Polypeptides are made up of amino acids
• Information for making polypeptides are
stored in a coded form in the genes of the
amino acids
• The sequence of bases in a gene codes
for the sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide
19. Transcription
• Transcription: Copying of a base sequence of DNA
by making RNA
• Uses complementary base pairing; replacing
Thymine with Uracil when bonded to Adenine
• Stages:
1. DNA uncoils and separates
2. Free RNA nucleotides assemble using one strand as
a template
3. RNA nucleotides link together
4. The RNA strand then separates from DNA; it is now
messenger RNA (mRNA)
5. DNA reforms a double helix
20. Translation
• Translation: Translates the RNA genetic code
(which are in groups of codons) into an amino acid
chain
• Stages:
1. mRNA binds to the small subunit a of ribosome;
mRNA contains codons
2. Free transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules have
anticodons that are complementary to certain mRNA
codons; tRNA also carries amino acids
3. tRNA bonds to the ribosome if it is complementary to
the mRNA codon; these codons and anticodons
form hydrogen bonds
4. The amino acids carried by the bonding tRNA
molecules bond together into peptides
21. One Gene-One Polypeptide Hypothesis
• There is almost always a single gene to
code for a polypeptide that does not code
for any other polypeptide
22. Introducing Enzymes
• Enzymes: globular proteins that catalyze
chemical reactions
• By making only certain enzymes, cells can
control what chemical reactions take place
• Denaturation: changing the structure of an
enzyme so it can no longer carry out its
function
• Substrates: the reactants in enzyme
reactions
23. Enzyme-Substrate Specificity
• Most enzymes are specific and only catalyze
certain reactions with certain substrates
• Substrates bond to active site of an enzyme
• Active site: region on the surface of an
enzyme to which substrates bind to catalyze
a chemical reaction with the substrate
– Only certain substrates can fit
the shape (like a key fitting into
a lock)
24. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
• Temperature
– As temp increases, so does enzyme activity
– At a certain temp enzyme activity will drop
• pH
– Optimum pH is 7
– pH levels closest to 7 have highest activity
• Substrate concentration
– The greater the amount of substrates available to
bind to, the greater the activity
– Enzyme activity eventually plateaus
25. Lactase and Lactose-Free Milk
• Lactose: natural sugar in milk
• Lactase: converts lactose into glucose and
galactose
• Biotechnology can extract lactase to
prevent possible negative effects caused
by lactose
26. Energy and Cells
• All living cells need continuous energy
• Cell respiration: controlled release of ATP
energy from organic compounds in cells
• Can be aerobic (with oxygen) or
anaerobic (without oxygen)
27. Use of Glucose in Respiration
• Cell respiration often uses glucose
• Glucose is broken down into pyruvate (a
simpler ogranic compound)
• This produces a small amount of ATP
energy that is released by glucose
28. Anaerobic Cell Respiration
• If oxygen is unavailable, pyruvate is
converted into a waste product
– Waste product is either lactate (in humans); or
ethanol or carbon dioxide (in yeast)
• No ATP is produced
29. Aerobic Cell Respiration
• If oxygen is available, the pyruvate is
absorbed into the mitochondria and is
broken down into Carbon Dioxide and
Water
• ATP is produced
30. Introducing Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis: process used by plants to
produce organic substances from light
energy and inorganic substances
• Light energy is converted to chemical
energy
• Chlorophyll is the main pigment that
absorbs light
• Some of the absorbed energy makes ATP
and other split into water molecules
31. Measuring Rates of Photosynthesis
• Can measure the rate of photosynthesis
with:
– Production of Oxygen
– Uptake of Carbon Dioxide
– Increase in Biomass
32. Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
• Light intensity
– As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis
increases
– Eventually plateaus
• Carbon Dioxide
– As CO2 concentration increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases
– Eventually plateaus
• Temperature
– As temperature increases, the rate of photosynthesis
increases steeply
– Reaches an optimum temperature then the rate drops