The cytoskeleton
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The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules present in all cells that helps maintain cell shape and organization and enables functions like movement and division. It is composed of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments made of different proteins like tubulin and actin. The cytoskeleton provides mechanical support and is essential for many cellular processes.
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Cytoskeletal structures
The document summarizes the three main types of cytoskeletal structures - microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. It describes their protein composition, assembly, organization into networks within cells, and key functions like providing structure, enabling cell movement and division. Microtubules are rigid hollow tubes that help determine cell shape and transport organelles, while microfilaments composed of actin filaments enable muscle contraction and cell movement. Intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength and support nuclear positioning.
THE CYTOSKELETON
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm. It provides structure and organization to the cell, determining shape and positioning organelles. The three main types of filaments are actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Actin filaments are the thinnest filaments and form structures like filopodia, lamellipodia, and stress fibers. Microtubules are hollow cylinders composed of tubulin dimers and originate from the centrosome. They are involved in processes like cell division, organelle transport, and motility. Cilia and flagella project from the cell surface and use microtubule motors for movement.
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The cytoskeleton consists of three main types of protein filaments - microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Microtubules provide structure to cells and are involved in cell motility and intracellular transport. Microfilaments are the thinnest filaments and are involved in cell movement and cytoplasmic streaming. Intermediate filaments provide structural support and help maintain cell shape.
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The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and microtubules that gives cells their shape and enables cellular movement. It is composed of three main types of protein filaments: intermediate filaments, microtubules, and actin filaments. Intermediate filaments provide strength and structure, microtubules help shape the cell and are involved in cell division and transport, and actin filaments enable cell movement and structures like microvilli. Muscle contraction occurs via the sliding of actin and myosin filaments when the myosin crossbridges attach and pull on the actin filaments.
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is made up of 3 main components that provide structure and allow movement in eukaryotic cells. Microfilaments are the thinnest and composed of actin, intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength, and microtubules are hollow tubes important for cell division and intracellular transport. Together these components maintain cell shape and allow organelles and the cell itself to move.
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The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm. It provides structure and organization to the cell, determining shape and positioning organelles. The three main types of filaments are actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Actin filaments are the thinnest filaments and form structures like filopodia, lamellipodia, and stress fibers. Microtubules are hollow cylinders composed of tubulin dimers and originate from the centrosome. They are involved in processes like cell division, organelle transport, and motility. Cilia and flagella project from the cell surface and use microtubule motors for movement.
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Cell junctions connect neighboring cells and classify into three main types - occluding, communicating, and anchoring junctions. Occluding junctions prevent molecules from passing between cells, like tight junctions. Communicating junctions allow transfer of substances between cells via channels, such as gap junctions. Anchoring junctions provide structural strength, exemplified by desmosomes attaching cells to each other or hemidesmosomes attaching cells to the extracellular matrix. Cell adhesion molecules like cadherins and selectins are transmembrane proteins that mediate cell-cell binding and participate in various cellular processes during development, wound healing, and immune responses.
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Cell movement
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Micro filaments
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2) Actin polymerization is regulated by actin-binding proteins that nucleate, depolymerize, sever, cross-link, or cap actin filaments.
3) In nonmuscle and muscle cells, actin microfilaments interact with myosin to generate forces responsible for cell motility, shape changes, and muscle contraction.
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The cytoskeleton is made up of three main components - microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments. Microtubules are hollow tubes made of tubulin dimers that help maintain cell shape and transport vesicles. Microfilaments are made of actin and enable cell movement and division. Intermediate filaments provide structural support and anchor organelles. The extracellular matrix of animal cells contains collagen, fibronectin and proteoglycans, while plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose and pectin.
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Motor molecules also carry vesicles or organelles to various destinations along “monorails’ provided by the cytoskeleton.
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Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can renew themselves and differentiate into specialized cell types. There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells found in blastocysts and adult stem cells found in tissues. Adult stem cells act as a repair system, replenishing tissues through differentiation. In developing embryos, stem cells can differentiate into all cell types but in adults maintain regenerative organs. Sources of adult stem cells include bone marrow, adipose tissue, blood, and umbilical cord blood. Induced pluripotent stem cells are derived from reprogrammed skin or blood cells enabling development of cells for research and therapy.
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Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are defined as organisms with altered genetic material using genetic engineering techniques. GMOs are used to produce many medications, foods, and are important in scientific research and other industries. Genetic modification involves inserting, deleting, or mutating genes, often from different species, through various techniques like attaching genes to viruses or using electric pulses. Genetically modified animals are being developed for purposes like modeling human diseases, producing industrial products, making pharmaceuticals, creating hypoallergenic pets, enhancing production/food traits, and improving health.
Obesity
Obesity is defined as a body mass index over 30 kg/m2 and is associated with various health risks such as breathing issues, certain cancers, heart disease, depression and diabetes. The main treatments for obesity are diet, exercise and weight loss programs. Medications like Orlistat can also be used, and bariatric surgery is the most effective treatment for severe obesity resulting in long-term weight loss and reduced mortality. Management requires permanent lifestyle changes to diet and exercise.
GI presentation embryo
The document summarizes gastrointestinal tract development from the primordial gut tube. It describes how the gut is divided into the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Each section gives rise to specific organs as the gut rotates and elongates during the 4th-8th week of development. Key structures including the esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, and intestines develop from the endoderm-lined foregut, midgut, and hindgut regions.
thomas sydenham
Thomas Sydenham was an English physician born in 1624 in Dorset, England. He served as an officer in the army during the English Civil War. After graduating from Oxford with a bachelor's degree in medicine in 1648, he published his first book on treating fevers in 1666 which described the clinical characteristics of measles. Sydenham is renowned for his emphasis on bedside practice and observation, creating his own method of classifying diseases. He discovered Sydenham's Chorea, a neurological disorder. Considered a founder of clinical medicine, his works were a standard medical textbook for two centuries until his death in London in 1689 at age 65.
Humphry davy
Humphry Davy was an English chemist born in 1778 in Cornwall who showed natural intelligence and curiosity from a young age. After his father's death, he became a surgeon's apprentice and befriended Davies Gilbert, who allowed Davy to use his well-equipped laboratory to experiment with gases. In 1798, Davy joined the Pneumatic Institution in Bristol to investigate the medical properties of gases and was awarded the Copley Medal, Royal Medal, and Rumford Medal for his scientific achievements.
Harvey williams cushing
Harvey Cushing was an American neurosurgeon born in 1869 in Cleveland, Ohio. He studied medicine at Harvard Medical School and completed his residency at Johns Hopkins Hospital. Cushing was a pioneer of brain surgery and is known as the "father of neurosurgery." He was the first person to describe Cushing's disease, a cause of Cushing's syndrome characterized by increased secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Together with Ernest Sachs, Cushing helped establish neurosurgery as a medical specialty. He died in 1939 in New Haven, Connecticut.
Early wilbur sutherland
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. was an American pharmacologist and biochemist who won the 1971 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discoveries about hormone mechanisms, especially how epinephrine works through second messengers. He studied at Washburn College and Washington University School of Medicine, and conducted research on how hormones like epinephrine break down glycogen into glucose. After serving as an army physician in WWII, Sutherland held teaching roles in biochemistry and pharmacology at Washington University and Case Western Reserve University. He died in 1974 at age 58 from surgical complications.
The different pattern of inheritance
This document summarizes the key differences between mitochondrial DNA and nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is found in mitochondria, contains only one small circular chromosome, and is only passed down from mothers. Nuclear DNA contains 46 chromosomes inherited half from each parent and codes for most proteins. Additionally, all currently living humans can trace their matrilineal lineage back to a single female ancestor known as Mitochondrial Eve.
Somite formation
Somites are bilaterally paired segments of paraxial mesoderm that form along the embryonic axis and give rise to important structures. Somites subdivide into sclerotomes, myotomes and dermatomes that form vertebrae, ribs, muscle, tendons and skin. Somite formation depends on a "clock mechanism" where paraxial mesoderm segments into somites according to their position in a regulated process. Within each somite, cells are specified based on location and retain flexibility before differentiating into somite-derived tissues through epithelialization and mesenchymal transformation processes.
Protein synthesis
Protein synthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins through transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the cell's nucleus where DNA is copied to RNA. Translation then takes place in the cytoplasm as ribosomes assemble amino acids to create proteins based on the RNA code. Protein synthesis is tightly regulated at multiple steps including transcription and translation.
The ovarian cycle
The menstrual cycle is governed by hormonal changes and can be divided into the ovarian cycle and uterine cycle. The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase where follicles mature, ovulation when an egg is released, and the luteal phase where the corpus luteum forms. The uterine cycle involves menstruation, the proliferative phase where the lining grows, and the secretory phase where the lining thickens in preparation for pregnancy under progesterone influence. These cycles allow for reproduction and are a natural part of female reproductive health.
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The cytoskeleton
- 2. OIt is a structure that helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization, and it also provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out essential functions like division and movement. OThere is no single cytoskeletal component. Rather, several different components work together to form the cytoskeleton.
- 3. OA cytoskeleton is present in all cells of all domains of life (archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes). O It is a complex network of interlinking filaments and tubules that extend throughout the cytoplasm, from the nucleus to the plasma membrane. OThe cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins.
- 5. What Is the Cytoskeleton Made Of?
- 6. Microtubules are the largest type of filament, with a diameter of about 25 nanometers (nm), and they are composed of a protein called tubulin.
- 7. Actin filaments are the smallest type, with a diameter of only about 6 nm, and they are made of a protein called actin.
- 8. are mid-sized, with a diameter of about 10 nm. intermediate filaments are constructed from a number of different subunit proteins.