Blood is a connective tissue composed of plasma and formed elements. Its main functions are transportation of oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide and waste; regulation of pH, temperature and water content of cells; and protection from infection and disease. The three major components of blood are plasma, red blood cells, and white blood cells. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen, while white blood cells help fight infection and disease. Platelets assist in blood clotting to stop bleeding. The circulatory system efficiently carries out these vital functions through blood's composition and properties.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
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Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
Comment to get explanation on your required topics.....
please like and share and follow.....
Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of blood cells suspended in blood plasma.
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.
This is about the general physiology of sense organs for medical and paramedical professional beginners who choose pharmacy, nursing and physiotherapy to study.
This presentation is on the topic blood from circulatory system. The presentation can be used in anatomy & physiology for B.Sc Nursing and GNM students.
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.
This is about the general physiology of sense organs for medical and paramedical professional beginners who choose pharmacy, nursing and physiotherapy to study.
This presentation is on the topic blood from circulatory system. The presentation can be used in anatomy & physiology for B.Sc Nursing and GNM students.
ANATOMY OF BLOOD- RBCs, WBCs & PlateletSaili Gaude
This lecture involves, anatomy of RBC, WBC and platelets. It includes detailed description of this cells, its functions and hematopoeisis in short. This lecture is prepared for BSc nursing students.
It is the liquid connective tissue. It is composed of an extracellular matrix called as blood plasma that dissolves and suspends various cells and cell fragments
Theory of Psychosocial Development
Theory of Psychosexual Development
Theory of Cognitive development
Theory of Moral Development
Prepared for Nursing Students
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
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Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
2. THE BLOOD
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue.
The main function:
• Blood is the fluid that transports oxygen and nutrients to
the cells and carries away carbon dioxide and other waste
products.
3. Characteristics
• Viscous (thicker) and sticky
• Temperature: 100.4°F (38°C)
• pH: 7.35-7.45 (Slightly alkaline)
• Colour: Varies with oxygen content
- With O2 bright red
- Less O2 dark red
• Volume:
Adult male: 5-6 L
Adult female: 4 – 5 L
4. Functions of Blood
1. Transportation:
Lungs --> O2 --> Body cells
Body cells --> CO2 --> Lungs
GI Tract --> Nutrients --> Body cells
Endocrine glands --> Hormones --> Body cells
Blood also transports heat and gathers waste products from various organs for
elimination from the body
5. 2. Regulation:
Circulating blood helps maintain homeostasis of all body fluids
Blood helps in maintaining the pH
Blood helps in adjusting the body temperatures like water.
Blood osmotic pressure influences water contents of cells and
interaction of ions & proteins.
6. 3. Protection
Blood clotting protects from excessive bleeding.
WBCs protects against infection
Blood proteins, including antibodies, interferons and
complement help protect from diseases
7. Blood plasma : A straw coloured fluid
Blood plasma is made up of:
Proteins (7%)
• Albumin (54%)
• Globulins (38%)
• Fibrinogen (7%)
• Other proteins (1%)
Water (91.5%)
Other Solute (1.5%) • Electrolytes
• Nutrients
• Gases
• Regulatory substances
• Waste products
8. Formed Elements
• It consists of:
PLATELETS
1,50,000 – 4,00,000
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs)
5000- 10,000
RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs)
4.8 – 5.8 million
Granulocytes
• Neutrophils (60-70%)
• Eosinophils (2-4%)
• Basophils (0.5- 1%)
number per µL
Agranulocytes
• Lymphocytes (20-25%)
• Monocytes (3-8%)
9.
10. Hematocrit
• The percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBCs is called
the hematocrit.
• If hematocrit is 40, it indicates 40% of the volume of blood is
composed of RBCs.
• Normal range
- Adult Female: 38-46%
- Adult Male: 40 – 54%
11. Formation of Blood Cells
• The process by which the formed elements of blood develop is called
hemopoiesis or haematopoiesis
Kindly click on the link for the video about hemopoiesis:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cm8IK24RRvA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXolwWiaFpM
12. RED BLOOD CELLS (Erythrocytes)
• These blood cells contain the oxygen carrying protein
hemoglobin, which is a pigment that gives whole blood its
red color.
• Shape: Biconcave discs
• Diameter: 7-8 µm
• RBCs have NO NUCLEUS
• The cytosol of RBCs contains hemoglobin
molecules
• Life span: 100 – 120 days (80 -90 days in infants)
13. RBC Physiology
• Highly specialized for their oxygen transport function.
• Due to no nucleus, lot of internal space is available for oxygen
transportation.
• RBCs don’t have mitochondria and generate ATP anaerobically (without
oxygen)
• The biconcave disc shape also increases the surface area for diffusion of
gas molecules into and out of RBC
• Each RBC contains about 280 million hemoglobin molecules.
14. Hemoglobin (Hb)
It is the iron containing protein in the blood.
Normal Hb value: 13 to 17gm/dl (male)
12 to 15 gm/dl (Female)
Structure:
• Hb molecule consist of a protein called globin.
• Hb has four polypeptide chains ( 2 alpha and 2 beta chain)
• The four chains are bound by non-protein pigment called heme.
• Each heme ring has an iron ion (Fe2+)
• Iron ion combines with Oxygen molecule
15. RED BLOOD CELL (Erythrocyte)
Hemoglobin (Protein)
Four Polypeptide Chain
2 Beta Chain
2 Alpha Chain
Four Heme pigment
Four Oxygen molecule
Structure
of RBC
16. • Heme – Oxygen molecule bond is reversible
• As blood flows through tissue capillaries Iron- Oxygen reaction reverses
• Oxygen is released first into interstitial space and then cells.
• Hemoglobin also transports 23% of the total carbon dioxide from metabolism.
Blood flowing through tissue capillaries pick up carbon dioxide, some of which
combines with amino acid in the globin chain.
As blood flows through lungs the carbon dioxide is released from hemoglobin and
then exhaled.
17. • Hemoglobin also plays a role in the regulation of blood flow and blood
pressure.
Gaseous hormone Nitric Oxide (NO) produced by endothelial cells that line blood
vessels binds to hemoglobin.
Under some circumstances Hb releases the NO, which causes vasodilation, which
is an increase in blood vessel diameter that occurs when the smooth muscles in
the vessel walls relaxes.
Vasodilation improves blood flow and enhances oxygen delivery to cells near the
site of Nitric Oxide release
18. • RBCs also contain the enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase (CA), which catalyses the
conversion of carbon dioxide and water to carbonic acid, which in turns
dissociates into H+ and HCO3
- .
CO2 + H2o H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
-
This reaction is important for two reasons:
1. It allows about 70% of CO2 to be transported in blood plasma from
tissue cells to the lungs in the form of HCO3
-
2. It also serves as an important buffer in extracellular fluid.
(Buffer: It is a solution which resists changes in pH when acid or alkali is added to it)
To be learned in detail with respiratory system
CA
19. RBC Life Cycle
• RBCs live for only about 120 days, due to the wear and tear they undergo
while passing through capillaries.
• Without nucleus and other organelles, RBCs cannot repair themselves.
• Damaged RBCs are removed from circulation and destroyed by fixed
phagocytic macrophages in the spleen and liver.
• The breakdown products are recycled and used in various metabolic
processes.
20. Erythropoiesis and destruction/ recycling of RBCs
• Erythropoiesis: The production or formation of RBCs in the red bone marrow.
• Erythropoietin: Hormone that regulate RBCs production
• Removal of damaged RBCs take place in Spleen, Liver and Bone marrow
• Macrophages are specialized cells involved in phagocytosis of damaged or
old RBCs
Click on the link below for explanation:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cATQFej6oAc
23. WHITE BLOOD CELLS
• White blood cells are also called Leukocytes
• WBCs have nuclei and a full complement of other organelles but they lack
hemoglobin.
• WBCs are classified into two:
i. Granular leukocytes or Granulocytes
ii. Agranular leukocytes or Agranulocytes
24. Granular Leukocytes
• Staining with Leishman's stain makes it possible to easily identify different types
of leukocytes.
• Leukocytes with clearly visible granules with distinctive colouration that can be
recognized under a light microscope are granular leukocytes or granulocytes.
• Three type:
- Neutrophil
- Eosinophil
- Basophil
(Kindly note the granules)
25. Neutrophil
• The granules of neutrophil are smaller than those of other granulocytes.
• They are stained pale lilac.
• The nucleus have 2 to 5 lobes connected by thin strands.
• Granules consist of lysosomes with enzymes for phagocytosis.
• They are attracted to area with infection by chemicals called chemotaxins.
• Life span: Average 5 days
• Neutrophils count = 2500-8000 per mm3 (55-70%)
• Function: Small, fast and active scavengers
- Protect the body against bacterial infection.
- Remove dead cells and its remains.
27. Eosinophil
• Consist of large uniform sized granules.
• They stain Red-orange with acidic dyes.
• Nucleus often has two lobes connected by thick strands of chromatin.
• Count: 30-500 per mm3 (2-4% of total WBCs)
• Function:
- Elimination of parasites like worms, using toxic chemicals stored in the granules.
- Accumulation of eosinophil occurs in allergic reactions (hypersensitivity).
Eosinophils helps in controlling inflammation. (e.g. Mosquito bite, asthma, skin
allergy)
29. Basophil
• Granules are round with various sizes.
• They stain blue-purple with basic dyes.
• Nucleus has two lobes
• Cytoplasmic granules are packed with heparin, histamine and other substances
that promote inflammation.
• Count: 0.5 - 1% of total WBCs.
• Functions
- Contains the anti-coagulant heparin, which prevents blood from clotting.
- They also contain histamines which are released during an allergic reaction to
enable inflammation
31. Agranular Leukocytes
• Even though they are called agranular, they have some amount of granules that
are not visible under a microscope.
• 20-50% of WBCs are agranulocytes.
• They are of two types:
32. Lymphocyte (T-Cell, B-Cell, Natural Killer cell)
• The nucleus stains dark and is round or slightly divided.
• The cytoplasm stains sky blue
• The larger the cell more cytoplasm is visible.
• Two types according to cell diameter
- Small: 6-9 µm - Large: 10-14 µm
• Count: 20- 40% of all WBCs (1000 – 4800 in 1µl of blood)
Function:
- Mediate immune responses, antigen-antibody reactions.
- B cells develop into plasma cells, which secrete antibodies.
- T cells attack invading viruses, cancer cells and transplanted tissues
- NK cells attack wide variety of infectious microbes
- Phagocytosis after developing into macrophages.
µ = micro
mm3= cubic meter
1µl = 1 mm3
34. • Nucleus is usually kidney- shaped or horseshoe- shaped
• Cytoplasm is blue- grey and has a foamy appearance due to very fine granules
(lysosomes)
• Largest WBCs accounts for 100-700 per mm3 (2 – 8% of all leukocytes)
• Monocytes develop in macropahges
Functions
- Phagocytosis after transforming to macrophages
- Produces Interleukin 1 which:
+ acts on the hypothalamus causes increase in body
temperature during microbial infection.
+ Stimulate globulin production by liver
+ Enhances production of T- Lymphocytes
Monocyte
µ = micro
mm3= cubic meter
1µl = 1 mm3
36. The Reticuloendothelial system (The Monocyte- macrophage system)
• Consist of body’s complement of monocytes and macrophages
• Some macrophage are mobile and some are fixed.
• The macrophages provide effective defence at key body locations.
• The collection of fixed macrophages are shown in the figure in the next slide.
• Macrophages produce chemicals called cytokines, interleukin 1.
• Important role in specific and non-specific immune system.
38. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
• Irregular disc shaped cells
• 2 – 4 µm in diameter
• Does not have nucleus
• Cytoplasm is packed with granules containing substances which
help in clotting.
• Cessations or Ending of bleeding is called haemostasis.
• Normal count: 1,50,000 to 4,00,000 per mm3
• The hormone thrombopoietin from the liver stimulates platelet production.
• Life span : 8 – 11 days (unused platelets destroyed by macrophages in the spleen)
• About 1/3rd of platelets is stored in the spleen to be released incase to control
excessive bleeding
40. Haemostasis : The stopping of blood flow
• When a blood vessel is damaged, there will be loss of blood.
• This loss of blood is stopped and healing of the damaged vessel takes place
through stages.
• Platelets play an important role in haemostasis through coagulation or blood
clotting.
Stages of Haemostasis:
1. Vasoconstriction
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation (Blood clotting)
4. Fibrinolysis
41. 1. Vasoconstriction
Platelets come in contact with damaged blood vessel
Platelets become sticky and adhere to the damaged walls
Platelets release Serotonin
causes
Constriction (narrows) of blood vessel
Reduces or stopping blood flow
42. 2. Platelet plug formation
Adherent platelet clump together
releases
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and other substances
causes
Attraction of more platelets to the injured site
positive feedback
More platelets accumulate at site of vascular damage
within 6 minutes of injury
Forms a temporary seal (Platelet plug)
43. 3. Coagulation (Blood Clotting)
• This is a complex process that also involves a positive feed back
system.
• Coagulation is aided by 12 clotting factors.
• There are three pathways for coagulation
- Extrinsic pathway (activated within seconds)
- Intrinsic pathway (activated in 3 -6minutes)
- Common pathway (activated after Ext and Int pathway)
47. 4. Fibrinolysis:
• The process of removing the clot and healing of the damaged blood vessel begin.
• The breakdown of clot is known as fibrinolysis
Damaged Endothelial cells
produce Activators that convert
Plasminogen Plasmin
causes
Breakdown of Fibrin
to
Soluble products Removed by Phagocytosis
Healing process begins
48. Blood Groups
• The surface of erythrocytes contain a genetically determined collection of
antigens made up of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
• The presence or absence of various antigens, blood is categorized into different
groups.
• There are at least 24 blood groups and more than 100 antigens.
• The two major blood groups are
- ABO Blood group
- Rh Blood group
49. ABO Blood Group
• It is based on two glycolipid antigen called A and B
• People whose RBCs have only antigen A have type A blood
• People having antigen B are type B blood
• People with both antigen A and B are type AB blood
• Who neither antigen A nor antigen B are type O blood
• Blood plasma usually contains antibodies called agglutinins that react with A or B
antigen if the two are mixed
50.
51. Rh Blood Group
• It is due to the presence of Rh antigen called Rh factor.
• It was first found in the blood of Rhesus monkey.
• People whose RBCs have Rh antigen are Rh+ (Rh Positive)
• People whose RBCs lack Rh antigen are Rh- (Rh negative)
58. Other types
• Aplastic anemia:
This occurs when the bone marrow does not produce enough red blood cells, and
treatment may involve transfusions. Certain medicines, toxins, and infectious
diseases can cause aplastic anemia.
• Haemolytic anaemia:
These occurs when circulating erythrocytes are destroyed or are removed
prematurely from the blood because the cells are abnormal or the spleen is
overactive. The life span of RBCs is shortened considerably from 120 days.
59. Congenital Haemolytic Anaemias
• Sickle cell anaemia:
It is an inherited group of disorders, red blood cells change shape into a sickle shape. The
cells die early, leaving a shortage of healthy red blood cells (sickle cell anaemia) and can
block blood flow causing pain (sickle cell crisis).
• Thalassaemia:
Thalassemia is an inherited blood disorder characterized by less oxygen-carrying protein
(haemoglobin) and fewer red blood cells in the body than normal.
• Haemolytic disease of new born:
(HDN) is a blood disorder in newborn babies. It occurs when the new born’s red blood
cells break down at a fast rate. It's also called erythroblastosis fetalis. Hemolytic means
breaking down of red blood cells
60. • Chemical agent associated anaemias: e.g. sulphonamides, toxins by microbes,
chemicals at work places.
• Autoimmune anaemia:
It occurs when body make antibodies to their own red cell antigens, causing
haemolysis. e.g: Carcinoma, viral infection etc.
• Blood transfusion reaction anaemia.
When an individual receives blood transfusion carrying antigen different from their
own, the immune system will recognize them as foreign body, make antibodies and
destroy them
Acquired Haemolytic Anaemias
61. Polycythemia
• It is the abnormally large number of erythrocytes in the blood.
• There is abnormal increase in number of RBCs, more than normal
• This causes increased blood viscosity, slow blood flow and risk of intravascular
clotting, ischemia and infarction.
62. Leukocyte disorders
• Leukopenia: In this condition, the total blood leukocyte count is less that
4000/mm3
• Granulocytopenia (Neutropenia):
Abnormal reduction in number of circulating
granulocytes.
• Leukocytosis:
An increase in the number of circulating leukocytes, occurs as a normal protective
reaction especially in infection.
There is an increase in WBC count during an infection
63. Leukemia
• Leukaemia is a malignant proliferation of white blood cell. It results in the
uncontrolled increase in the production of leukocytes.
• Causes: Ionising radiation, Chemicals, genetic factors
• Types:
- Acute Leukemia
Acute myeloblastic leukemia (AML)
Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL)
- Chronic Leukemia
Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)
64. • This is defined as blood platelet count below 1,50,000 / mm3
• Bleeding occurs when count falls below 30000/ mm3
• It maybe due to reduced platelet production or increased platelet destruction
• Vitamin K is required by the liver for the synthesis of many clotting factors,
therefor deficiency of vitamin K can lead to abnormal clotting.
Thrombocytopenia
Vitamin K Deficiency
65. • Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) is a condition in which blood clots form
throughout the body, blocking small blood vessels. Symptoms may include chest pain,
shortness of breath, leg pain, problems speaking, or problems moving parts of the
body.
• Haemophilia is an inherited bleeding disorder where blood doesn’t clot properly. It is
caused when blood does not have enough clotting factor. A clotting factor is a protein in
blood that controls bleeding.
There are two types of haemophilia. Both have the same symptoms:
• Haemophilia A is the most common form and is caused by having reduced levels of
clotting factor VIII (8).
• Haemophilia B, also known as Christmas Disease, is caused by having reduced levels of
clotting factor IX (9).
Disseminated Intravascular Coagulopathy (DIC)
Haemophilias
66. References
• Tortora GJ, Derrickson B. Tortora’s Principles of Anatomy & Physiology. 15th
Global edition. Noida: Wiley India Pvt ltd; 2017. 584-604 p.
• Waugh A, Grant A. Ross and Wilson Anatomy & Physiology in health and
illness. 12th edition. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier. 2014. 62-79 p.
• https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/116/4/511/27471/A-day-or-5-in-
a-neutrophil-s-life
• https://cllsociety.org/toolbox/normal-lab-values/