The document discusses the structure and functions of human cells. It begins by defining the cell as the structural and functional unit of living organisms, and describes some key discoveries in cell biology. It then outlines the main structures and organelles found within cells, including the cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and microtubules. The functions of these structures are also summarized. The document concludes by explaining different mechanisms of transport across cell membranes, such as passive transport via diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
The cellular components of blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the RBCs constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white blood cells about 0.7%. Platelets make up less than 1%.
Glands, Types, classification and functions(Anatomy Topic)Swatilekha Das
Anatomy Topic for B.Sc & GNM nursing students- easy explanation.
what is gland? what are the types of glands? classification of glands according to structure,and according to function. functions of exocrine and endocrine glands.
lymphatic system, a subsystem of the circulatory system in the vertebrate body that consists of a complex network of vessels, tissues, and organs. The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance in the body by collecting excess fluid and particulate matter from tissues and depositing them in the bloodstream
This is about the general physiology of sense organs for medical and paramedical professional beginners who choose pharmacy, nursing and physiotherapy to study.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
Comment to get explanation on your required topics.....
please like and share and follow.....
This ppt covers composition and functions of blood in a systematic and interactive manner. I hope this PPT will be helpful for instructor's as well as students.
Tissues, types and functions(Anatomy)- Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Easy explanation on Tissues , types of tissues and functions of tissues with pictures.......
Easy anatomy topic for 1 st yera GNM and B.Sc nursing students.....
Muscles is a contractile tissue which brings about movement.
Muscle cell responsible for our movement both visible and invisible, example walking, talking, bowel movement ,urination, breathing, heartbeats, the dilation and constriction of the pupils of our eyes and many other.
When we are still sitting or standing muscle cells keep us erect.
CONT...Muscles can be regarded as motors of the body.Muscles comprises about 40% to 50% (approximate) of body weight.There are approximate 650 muscles in body.Alternating contraction and relaxation of cells
The cellular components of blood are erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs), and thrombocytes (platelets). By volume, the RBCs constitute about 45% of whole blood, the plasma about 54.3%, and white blood cells about 0.7%. Platelets make up less than 1%.
Glands, Types, classification and functions(Anatomy Topic)Swatilekha Das
Anatomy Topic for B.Sc & GNM nursing students- easy explanation.
what is gland? what are the types of glands? classification of glands according to structure,and according to function. functions of exocrine and endocrine glands.
lymphatic system, a subsystem of the circulatory system in the vertebrate body that consists of a complex network of vessels, tissues, and organs. The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance in the body by collecting excess fluid and particulate matter from tissues and depositing them in the bloodstream
This is about the general physiology of sense organs for medical and paramedical professional beginners who choose pharmacy, nursing and physiotherapy to study.
Cells and its components(Anatomy) Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Cells and its components,discussion on cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus with pictures....
easy explanation of anatomy topic for 1 st year GNM & B.Sc nursing students...
Comment to get explanation on your required topics.....
please like and share and follow.....
This ppt covers composition and functions of blood in a systematic and interactive manner. I hope this PPT will be helpful for instructor's as well as students.
Tissues, types and functions(Anatomy)- Easy explanationSwatilekha Das
Easy explanation on Tissues , types of tissues and functions of tissues with pictures.......
Easy anatomy topic for 1 st yera GNM and B.Sc nursing students.....
Muscles is a contractile tissue which brings about movement.
Muscle cell responsible for our movement both visible and invisible, example walking, talking, bowel movement ,urination, breathing, heartbeats, the dilation and constriction of the pupils of our eyes and many other.
When we are still sitting or standing muscle cells keep us erect.
CONT...Muscles can be regarded as motors of the body.Muscles comprises about 40% to 50% (approximate) of body weight.There are approximate 650 muscles in body.Alternating contraction and relaxation of cells
DEFINITION:
Cell is a structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
STRUCTURE OF THE CELL:
PARTS OF THE CELL
Plasma Membrane
Cytoplasm
a. Cytosol
b. Organelles
Cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosome
Centrosome
Nucleus
Mitochondria
PLASMA MEMBRANE
Structure of Plasma Membrane
The Cell membrane also known as the Plasma membrane.
It is a Biological Membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the
outside environment.
It consists of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins.
The Lipid layer made up of three types of lipid molecules such as Phospholipids,
Cholesterols and Glycolipids.
The bilayer arrangement occurs because the lipid are amphipathic molecule
(Both Polar and Nonpolar parts)
Phospholipids – Phosphate (Polar) – Head – Hydrophilic
Lipid (Non Polar) – Tail – Hydrophobic
Cholesterols – Slightly Amphipathic
Glycolipids – Carbohydrate (Polar) – Head
Lipid (Non Polar) – Tail
Functions of Plasma Membrane:
Acts as a barrier separating inside and outside of the cell.
Controls the flow of substances into and out of the cell.
Helps identify the cell to other cells (e.g., immune cells).
Participates in intercellular signalling.
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus and has two components.
a) Cytosol
b) Organelles
a) Cytosol: (pH - 7)
The Cytosol (Intracellular fluid) is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm that
surrounds organelles.
Cytosol is 75 – 90% of water plus various dissolved and suspended components.
Among these are different types of ions, glucose, amino acid, fatty acid, protein,
lipid, ATP and waste products.
The cytosol is the site of many Chemical reactions for a cell existence.
b) Organelles
Cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosome
Centrosome
Nucleus
Mitochondria
CYTOSKELETON:
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments.
It Consists of three types of filament proteins
1. Microfilament
2. Intermediate filament
3. Microtubules
1. Microfilament
Microfilaments are the thinnest elements of the cytoskeleton.
Diameter – 6nm
They are composed of protein Actin and Myosin.
Most Prevalent at the edge of a cell.
Functions of Microfilament:
They help generate movement and provide mechanical support.
Microfilaments are involved in muscle contraction, cell division and cell
locomotion.
The Mechanical support that is responsible for the basic strength and shape of
cells.
2. Intermediate filaments
Several different proteins such as keratin, collagen can compose intermediate
filament.
Diameter – 10 nm
Functions of Intermediate filaments:
They help stabilize the position of organelles such as the nucleus.
3. Microtubules
Largest cytoskeletal components.
Diameter – 25 nm
Unbranched hollow tubes composed mainly of the protein tubulin.
Functions of Microtubules
Microtubules help determine Cell shape.
Cell :Structure & Functions for Medical and Health allied StudentsRajendra Dev Bhatt
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms.
It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life.
Introduction
Structure of Plasma Membranes
Functions of Plasma Membranes
Cytoplasm: Cytosol, Organelles
Functions of Cytoplasm
Ribosome, Functions of Ribosomes
2. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
a. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and its Functions
b. Smooth ER and its Functions
3. Golgi complex and its Functions
4.Lysosomes and its Functions
5. Peroxisomes and its Functions
6. Proteasomes and its Functions
7.Mitochondria and its Functions
8. Cytoskeletal
a. Microfilaments and its Functions
b. Intermediate filaments and its Functions
c. Microtubules and its Functions
9. Centrosome and its Functions
10. Cilia and Flagella and its Functions
11. Nucleus and its Functions
a. Nuclear Membrane and its Functions
b. Nucleoplasm and its Functions
c. Chromosomes and its Functions
d. Nucleolus and its Functions
Defecation
Normal defecation begins with movement in the left colon, moving stool toward the anus. When stool reaches the rectum, the distention causes relaxation of the internal sphincter and an awareness of the need to defecate. At the time of defecation, the external sphincter relaxes, and abdominal muscles contract, increasing intrarectal pressure and forcing the stool out
The Valsalva maneuver exerts pressure to expel faeces through a voluntary contraction of the abdominal muscles while maintaining forced expiration against a closed airway. Patients with cardiovascular disease, glaucoma, increased intracranial pressure, or a new surgical wound are at greater risk for cardiac dysrhythmias and elevated blood pressure with the Valsalva maneuver and need to avoid straining to pass the stool.
Normal defecation is painless, resulting in passage of soft, formed stool
CONSTIPATION
Constipation is a symptom, not a disease. Improper diet, reduced fluid intake, lack of exercise, and certain medications can cause constipation. For example, patients receiving opiates for pain after surgery often require a stool softener or laxative to prevent constipation. The signs of constipation include infrequent bowel movements (less than every 3 days), difficulty passing stools, excessive straining, inability to defecate at will, and hard feaces
IMPACTION
Fecal impaction results from unrelieved constipation. It is a collection of hardened feces wedged in the rectum that a person cannot expel. In cases of severe impaction the mass extends up into the sigmoid colon.
DIARRHEA
Diarrhea is an increase in the number of stools and the passage of liquid, unformed feces. It is associated with disorders affecting digestion, absorption, and secretion in the GI tract. Intestinal contents pass through the small and large intestine too quickly to allow for the usual absorption of fluid and nutrients. Irritation within the colon results in increased mucus secretion. As a result, feces become watery, and the patient is unable to control the urge to defecate. Normally an anal bag is safe and effective in long-term treatment of patients with fecal incontinence at home, in hospice, or in the hospital. Fecal incontinence is expensive and a potentially dangerous condition in terms of contamination and risk of skin ulceration
HEMORRHOIDS
Hemorrhoids are dilated, engorged veins in the lining of the rectum. They are either external or internal.
FLATULENCE
As gas accumulates in the lumen of the intestines, the bowel wall stretches and distends (flatulence). It is a common cause of abdominal fullness, pain, and cramping. Normally intestinal gas escapes through the mouth (belching) or the anus (passing of flatus)
FECAL INCONTINENCE
Fecal incontinence is the inability to control passage of feces and gas from the anus. Incontinence harms a patient’s body image
PREPARATION AND GIVING OF LAXATIVESACCORDING TO POTTER AND PERRY,
An enema is the instillation of a solution into the rectum and sig
Navigating Challenges: Mental Health, Legislation, and the Prison System in B...Guillermo Rivera
This conference will delve into the intricate intersections between mental health, legal frameworks, and the prison system in Bolivia. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current challenges faced by mental health professionals working within the legislative and correctional landscapes. Topics of discussion will include the prevalence and impact of mental health issues among the incarcerated population, the effectiveness of existing mental health policies and legislation, and potential reforms to enhance the mental health support system within prisons.
Leading the Way in Nephrology: Dr. David Greene's Work with Stem Cells for Ki...Dr. David Greene Arizona
As we watch Dr. Greene's continued efforts and research in Arizona, it's clear that stem cell therapy holds a promising key to unlocking new doors in the treatment of kidney disease. With each study and trial, we step closer to a world where kidney disease is no longer a life sentence but a treatable condition, thanks to pioneers like Dr. David Greene.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V PREVENTIVE-PEDIATRICS.pdfSachin Sharma
This content provides an overview of preventive pediatrics. It defines preventive pediatrics as preventing disease and promoting children's physical, mental, and social well-being to achieve positive health. It discusses antenatal, postnatal, and social preventive pediatrics. It also covers various child health programs like immunization, breastfeeding, ICDS, and the roles of organizations like WHO, UNICEF, and nurses in preventive pediatrics.
Telehealth Psychology Building Trust with Clients.pptxThe Harvest Clinic
Telehealth psychology is a digital approach that offers psychological services and mental health care to clients remotely, using technologies like video conferencing, phone calls, text messaging, and mobile apps for communication.
Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
The Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index is an online tool created by ILC that ranks countries on six metrics including, life span, health span, work span, income, environmental performance, and happiness. The Index helps us understand how well countries have adapted to longevity and inform decision makers on what must be done to maximise the economic benefits that comes with living well for longer.
Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
One of the most developed cities of India, the city of Chennai is the capital of Tamilnadu and many people from different parts of India come here to earn their bread and butter. Being a metropolitan, the city is filled with towering building and beaches but the sad part as with almost every Indian city
We understand the unique challenges pickleball players face and are committed to helping you stay healthy and active. In this presentation, we’ll explore the three most common pickleball injuries and provide strategies for prevention and treatment.
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
India Clinical Trials Market: Industry Size and Growth Trends [2030] Analyzed...Kumar Satyam
According to TechSci Research report, "India Clinical Trials Market- By Region, Competition, Forecast & Opportunities, 2030F," the India Clinical Trials Market was valued at USD 2.05 billion in 2024 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.64% through 2030. The market is driven by a variety of factors, making India an attractive destination for pharmaceutical companies and researchers. India's vast and diverse patient population, cost-effective operational environment, and a large pool of skilled medical professionals contribute significantly to the market's growth. Additionally, increasing government support in streamlining regulations and the growing prevalence of lifestyle diseases further propel the clinical trials market.
Growing Prevalence of Lifestyle Diseases
The rising incidence of lifestyle diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer is a major trend driving the clinical trials market in India. These conditions necessitate the development and testing of new treatment methods, creating a robust demand for clinical trials. The increasing burden of these diseases highlights the need for innovative therapies and underscores the importance of India as a key player in global clinical research.
Struggling with intense fears that disrupt your life? At Renew Life Hypnosis, we offer specialized hypnosis to overcome fear. Phobias are exaggerated fears, often stemming from past traumas or learned behaviors. Hypnotherapy addresses these deep-seated fears by accessing the subconscious mind, helping you change your reactions to phobic triggers. Our expert therapists guide you into a state of deep relaxation, allowing you to transform your responses and reduce anxiety. Experience increased confidence and freedom from phobias with our personalized approach. Ready to live a fear-free life? Visit us at Renew Life Hypnosis..
Navigating Women's Health: Understanding Prenatal Care and Beyond
Human cell
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ANATOMYAND PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER-II
INTRODUCTION TO THE DETAILED STRUCTURE OF
THE BODY
PREPARED BY:
MR.JAYDIPJ.NINAMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR (CHN)
SCON
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HUMAN CELL
INTRODUCTION
A cell is a minute jelly like mass of protoplasm containing a
nucleus held together by a cell membrane.
The cell is the structural and functional unit of living
organisms.
Human body is made up of 75 trillion cells.
It was Robert hook who first coined the term cell in 1665.
The study of cells is called histology.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL
1. irritability
The cell has the ability to detect and respond to change in its
environment.
2.nutrition
The cell is capable of absorbing fluids and dissolved substances
directly through Cell membrane and these can be used by the cell
growth and repair, to provide energy.
3. Respiration
The cell has the ability to use oxygen combined with food
substances to form carbondioxide and water,while realesing
energy for intracellular activity.
4. respiration
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The cell is able to discharge unused and waste material through
cell membrane.
5. Growth and reproduction
The cell has the ability to increse in size and when it reaches the
limit of its growth it reproduce by dividing in to 2 smaller cells.
6. Movement
Some cells have power of movement.
STRUCTURE OFTHE CELL
THE CELL IS MADE UP OF THE FOLLOWING STRUCTURES
1.Cell membrane or plasma membrane
2.Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm :
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Mitochondria
3. Ribosomes
4. Golgi apparatus
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
7. centrosomes
8. Cilia
9. Flagella
10. Microfilaments
11. Microtubules
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CELLWALLOR PLASMAMEMBRANE
o The cell membrane is a protective
sheath of the cell body.
o It measures approximately 70-100
Angstron unites in thickness.
o The cell membrane is the
semipermeable membrane. So there is
free exchange of certain substances
between the extracellular and
intracellular fluids.
o The structure of cell wall is Fluidmosacmodel.
o The cell membrane is made up of proteins, lipids and a little amount of
carbohydrates.
COMPOSITION
1. PROTEINS: 55%
2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS: 25%
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3. CHOLESTEROL : 13%
4. OTHER LIPIDS: 4%
5. CARBOHYDRATES: 3%
FUNCTIONS
1. PROTECTIVE
It forms outermost boundary of the cell organells.
2. DIGESTIVE
Takes in food materials
3. EXCRETION
It excretes waste products
4. Property of Selective Permeability
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm is the cellular material between the plasma membrane
and the nucleus.
It is the part outside the nucleus. It contains organelles and also a
nucleus.
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLS
1. NUCLEUS
Large Oval body near the centre of the cell.
The control centre for all activity.
Surrounded by a nuclear membrane, but it has tiny pores through which some
substances can pass between it and the cytoplasm.
Every cell in the body has a nucleus, with the exception of mature erythrocytes (red
blood cells).
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2. NUCLEOPLASM
Is the protoplasm in the nucleus.
contains genetic material ---> CHROMOSOMES (DNA)
3. NUCLEOLUS
Is found in the nucleus.
contains more genetic information (RNA)
Function of nucleus
Controls every organelle in the cytoplasm and the cell reproduction process
because it contains the body's genetic material i.e. 46 chromosomes which
contain DNA, the genetic code, which directs the activities of the cell.
4 ENDOPLAMICRETICULUM
The endoplasmic reticulum is the interconnected network of tubular and
microsomal vesicular structures in the cytoplasm of the cell.
The endoplasmic reticulum is two types.
1.Rough er
2.Smooth er
ROUGH ER
It is the part of endoplasmic reticulum to which the granular ribosomes are
attached.
This part is also called the granular er.
FUNCTIONS
it is concerned with protein synthesis
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it is the cell memrane factory because integral proteins and phospholipids
that form part of all cellular membrane are manufactured.
SMOOTH ER
The smooth er is a continuation of the rough er and consists of tubules arranged in a
looping network.
FUNCTIONS
1. Lipid metabolism
2. cholesterol synthesis
3. lipoproteins
4. synthesis of steroid based hormones such as sex hormones
5. absorption, synthesis and transport of fats
6. detoxification of drugs and certain pesticides
7. breakdown of stored glycogen to form free glucose (liver cell especially)
5 MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria are sausage-shaped structures in the cytoplasm
Power house of the cell.
the mitochondria is composed of two layers of membrane they are:
1. an outer layer which is smooth
2. an inner layer folded in to sheets of tubules callled cristae.
both these layers enclose a central cavity called matrix
the mitochondria are made up of proteins, phospholipids and rna.they also
contain some important enzyme systems.
FUNCTION
1. it helps in oxidation of glucose
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2. mitochondria are power generating units of the cells 9synthesis of atp)
3. it also contain dna and can synthesize proteins
6 RIBOSOMES
These are tiny granules composed of RNA and protein found throughout the cell;
responsible for making enzymes and other protein compounds.
Ribosomes are also found on the outer surface of rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
ribosomes are granular structure with a diameter of nm
the ribosomes contains 65% rna and 35% proteins
FUNCTION
They synthesize proteins from amino acids.
7 GOLGIAPPARATUS
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of closely folded flattened membranous
sacs.
It is present in all cells but is larger in those that synthesize and export proteins.
It is a cup shaped structure and contains vesicles.
FUNCTIONS
The proteins move from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus
where they are 'packaged' into membrane.
The vesicles are stored and, when needed, move to the plasma membrane
8. LYSOSOMES
These are large irregular structures surrounded by unit membrane and
are found in the cytoplasm.
The cell contains several hundred lysosomes.
Lysosomes are filled with hydrolytic enzyme are called lysosomes
FUNCTIONS
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1. These are the suicide bags of the cells which contain more thn dozen powerful
hydrolytic enzymes
2. it is capable of digesting proteins and fats.
3. removal of unwanted damaged substances and foreign bodies like bacteria
4. Destruction of bacteria and other foreign bodies.
5. Removal of excessive secretory products in the cells of the glands.
9 PEROXISOMES
It is structure is similar to that of lysosomes
It release peroxidase enzyme which helps in the decrease of the activity of
oxygen derivatives like hydrogen peroxide.
the hydrogen peroxide is toxic to the cell.
10 CENTRIOLES OR CENTROSOMES
There are two short cylinders called centrioles
It is visible only during cell division
11. CILIA
they fine, hairlike extensions on the free surface of some cells; and are capable of
movement.
12. FLAGELLA:
It is a single projection from the cell surface; is larger than cilia; “tails” of
sperm cells are the only example of flagella in humans
13. MICROFILAMENTS:
These are tiny strands of protein that provide structural support and maintain the
characteristic shape of the cell.
14. MICROTUBULES:
These are protein structures in the cytoplasm involved in the movement of
the cell and of organelles within the cell, the movement of cilia (small
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projections from the free border of some cells) and possibly the
organisations of proteins in the plasma membrane.
TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCESACROSS CELL
MEMBRANES
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
This occurs when substances can cross plasma and organelle (semipermeable)
membranes and move down the concentration gradient (downhill) i.e. from higher to
lower concentration without using energy.
a. Diffusion: Molecules move from the area of higher concentration to the area of lower
concentration crossing membranes by: dissolving in the lipid part of the membrane, e.g.
lipid-soluble substances: oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids, steroids or passing
through water-filled channels, or pores in the membrane, e.g. small water-soluble
substances: sodium, potassium, calcium.
b. Facilitated diffusion: This passive process is utilized
by some substances that are unable to diffuse through
the semipermeable membrane unaided, e.g. glucose,
amino acids. Specialized protein carrier molecules in
the membrane have specific sites that attract and bind
substances to be transferred, like a lock and key
mechanism. The carrier then changes its shape and
deposits the substance on the other side of the membrane. The carrier sites are specific
and can be used by only one substance.
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c. Osmosis: Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane (the solutes cannot
cross the membrane) from the region of lower
concentration to the area of higher concentration.
Selectively permeable means a membrane will permit some substances to pass through
it but not others.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
This is the transport of substances up their concentration gradient (uphill), i.e. from a
lower to a higher concentration. Chemical energy in the form of ATP drives specialized
protein carrier molecules that transport substances
across the membrane in either direction.
The sodium pump: This active transport
mechanism maintains homeostasis of the
electrolytes sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+). It
may utilise up to 30% of the ATP required for
cellular metabolism. The principal cations are: K+
intracellularly and Na+ extracellularly. There is a
tendency for these ions to diffuse down their
concentration gradients, K+ outwards and Na+ into the cell. Homeostasis is maintained
as excess Na+ is pumped out across the cell membrane in exchange for K+.
1. BULK TRANSPORT
Transfer of particles too large to cross cell membranes occurs by pinocytosis or
phagocytosis. These particles are engulfed by extensions of the cytoplasm which
enclose them, forming a membrane-bound vacuole. When the vacuole is small,
pinocytosis occurs.
In phagocytosis larger particles, e.g. cell fragments, foreign materials, microbes, are
taken into the cell. Lysosomes then adhere to the vacuole membrane, releasing enzymes
which digest the contents.
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TISSUES
INTRODUCTION
The body is composed of only 3 basic elements, i.e. cells, intracellular substances and
body fluids.
The cells are derived from the 3 cellular layers- ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.
Of the embryo.
These cells continue to divide and gradually specialize structurally and functionally.
DEFINITION
A primary or basic tissue may be defined as a collection of cells and associated intracellular
materials specialized for a particular function or functions.
CLASSIFICATION OF TISSUES
Human body is composed of 4 basic types of tissue:
Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
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Muscular tissue
Nervous tissue
ORIGIN OF TISSUE
A fertilized egg divides to produce 3 primary germ cell layers. These layers differentiate
to form the tissues of the body
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Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial cells cover or line all body surfaces, cavities and tubes. So, these are called
covering epithelia.
Epithelial cells form the functional units of secretory glands. So, these are called
glandular epithelia.
General Characteristic
Closely attached to each other forming a protective barrier.
Always has one free (apical) surface open to outside the body or inside (cavity) an
internal organ.
Always has one fixed (basal) section attached to underlying connective tissue.
Has no blood vessels but can soak up nutrients from blood vessels in connective
tissue underneath.
Can have lots of nerves in it (innervated).
Very good at regenerating (fixing itself). i.e. sunburn, skinned knee.
Functions
To protect the tissues that lie beneath it from radiation, desiccation, toxins, and
invasion by pathogens, and physical trauma.
The regulation and exchange of chemicals between the underlying tissues and a
body cavity.
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The secretion of hormones into the blood vascular system, and/or the secretion
of sweat, mucus, enzymes, and other products that are delivered by ducts
glandular epithelium.
To provide sensation.
Absorbs stomach and intestinal lining (gut).
Filters the kidney.
Forms secretary glands.
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA
According to thickness
“simple” - one cell layer
“stratified” – more than one layer of cells (which are named according to
the shape of the cells in the apical layer)
According to shape
“squamous” – wider than tall
“cuboidal” – as tall as wide
“columnar” - taller than wide
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SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
Description: Single layer of flattened cells with disc-shaped central nuclei and sparse
cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia.
Function: Passive transport of gases and fluids.
Location: Alveoli of lungs, lining body cavities (mesothelium), lining blood vessels
(endothelium)
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SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIA
Description: Single layer of cube like cells with large, spherical central nuclei.
Function: Secretion and absorption.
Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary
surface.
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIA
Description: Single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei.
Types: (i) Ciliated columnar epithelia.
(ii)Non-ciliated columnar epithelia.
Function: Absorption; Secretion of mucus, Enzymesand other substances.
Location: Digestive tract, gall bladder etc.
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STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIA
Description:
Multilayered, surface cell are squamous, basal cells are cuboidal and divided
constantly.
Function: Protection.
Location: Oral cavity, cervix, anal canal
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STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL EPITHELIA
Description: Generally two layers of cube-like cells.
Function: Protection.
Location: Large ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.
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STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIA
Description:
Multilayered, superficial cells elongated and columnar.
Function: Protection; secretion.
Location: Rare in the body; small amount in the male urethra.
PSEUDO STRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIA
Description: Single cell layered, all cell attach to the basement membrane but not
all reach the free surface. Nuclei at varying depth.
Function: Secretion of mucus, propulsion of mucus by ciliary action.
Location: Lines of trachea.
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TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIA
Description: Characterized by domelike cells that are neither squamous nor
columnar. The form of the cells changes.
Function: Stretching and protection.
Location: Bladder and part of urethra.
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CONNECTIVE TISSUES: The tissues that connect the different parts of the
body together are called connective tissues.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
ü The intercellular material is maximum whereas the cellular component is minimum.
ü Unlike the other tissues, (e.g. epithelium, muscle and nerve) which are
formed mainly by cells, the major constituent of connective tissue is
ECM (Extra-cellular matrix).
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ü Possess cells, fibers and ground substances.
BASIC FUNCTIONS
Support and binding of other tissues
holding body fluids
qDefending the body against infection
› Macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, WBCs
Storing nutrients as fat
Classification of connective tissues
CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER
It refers to connective tissues with many types of cells and fibers
surrounded by matrix.
1. Collagen fibers: these are strong. Almost inflexible consisting of protein
collagen
Sites: skin, cerebral meninges, tendon, ligaments
2. elastic fibers: these are flexible and branched fibers consisting of protein
elastin.
sites: in the walls of the arteries and lining of nerve cells
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3. Reticular fibers: these are much thinner than the othe two types of fibers.
Sites: spleen and liver
Loose (areolar) connective tissue: This is the most generalized of all connective tissue.
The matrix is described as semisolid with many fibroblasts and some fat cells, mast
cells and macrophages widely separated by elastic and collagen fibres. It is found in
almost every part of the body providing elasticity and tensile strength. It connects and
supports other tissues.
Location:
o Under the skin
o Between muscles
o Supporting blood vessels and nerves
o In the alimentary canal
o In glands supporting secretory cells.
Adipose tissue: Adipose tissue consists of fat cells (adipocytes), containing large fat
globules, in a matrix of areolar tissue. There are two types: white and brown.
White adipose tissue. This makes up 20 to 25% of body weight in well-nourished
adults. The amount of adipose tissue in an individual is determined by the balance
between energy intake and expenditure.
Location:
o Supporting the kidneys and the eyes
o Between muscle fibres
o Under the skin.
Brown adipose tissue. This is present in the newborn. It has a more extensive capillary
network than white adipose tissue. When brown tissue is metabolised, it produces less
energy and considerably more heat than other fat, contributing to the maintenance of
body temperature. In adults it is present in only small amounts.
Dense connective tissue
Fibrous tissue: This tissue is made up mainly of closely packed bundles of collagen
fibres with very little matrix. Fibrocytes (old and inactive fibroblasts) are few in number
and are found lying in rows between the bundles of fibres.
Location:
o forming the ligaments, which bind bones together
o as an outer protective covering for bone, called periosteum
o as an outer protective covering of some organs, e.g. kidneys, lymph nodes and
brain
o forming muscle sheaths, called muscle fascia, which extend beyond the muscle
to become the tendon that attaches the muscle to bone.
Elastic tissue: Elastic tissue is capable of considerable extension and recoil. There are
few cells and the matrix consists mainly of masses of elastic fibres secreted by
fibroblasts. It is found in organs where alteration of shape is required.
Location:
o in large blood vessel walls, the epiglottis and the outer ears.
Blood: This is a fluid connective tissue.
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Lymphoid tissue: This tissue has a semisolid matrix with fine branching reticulin
fibers. It contains white blood cells (monocytes and lymphocytes).
Location:
o In blood
o In lymphoid tissue in the: lymph nodes, spleen, palatine and pharyngeal tonsils,
vermiform appendix, solitary and aggregated nodes in the small intestine, wall
of the large intestine.
Cartilage: Cartilage is a much firmer tissue than any of the other connective tissues;
the cells are called chondrocytes and are less numerous. They are embedded in matrix
reinforced by collagen and elastic fibres.
There are three types:
1. hyaline cartilage
2. fibrocartilage
3. elastic fibrocartilage.
1. Hyaline cartilage: Hyaline cartilage appears as a smooth bluish-white tissue. The
chondrocytes are in small groups within cell nests and the matrix is solid and smooth.
Location:
o on the surface of the parts of the bones that form joints
o forming the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to the sternum
o forming part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.
2. Fibrocartilage: This consists of dense masses of white collagen fibres in a matrix
similar to that of hyaline cartilage with the cells widely dispersed. It is a tough, slightly
flexible tissue.
Location:
o as pads between the bodies of the vertebrae, called the intervertebral discs
o between the articulating surfaces of the bones of the knee joint, called semilunar
cartilages
o on the rim of the bony sockets of the hip and shoulder joints
o as ligaments joining bones.
3. Elastic cartilage: This flexible tissue consists of yellow elastic fibres lying in a solid
matrix. The cells lie between the fibres.
Location: It forms the pinna or lobe of the ear, the epiglottis and part of the tunica
media of blood vessel walls.
Bone: Bone is a connective tissue with cells (osteocytes) surrounded by a matrix of
collagen fibres that is strengthened by inorganic salts, especially calcium and
phosphate. This provides bones with their characteristic strength and rigidity. Two
types of bone can be identified by the naked eye:
compact bone — solid or dense appearance
cancellous or spongy bone — spongy or fine honeycomb appearance.
MUSCLE TISSUE
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› Muscle is one of our 4 tissue types and muscle tissue combined with nerves,
blood vessels, and various connective tissues.
› Muscles are quite complex and as we’ll find out, they are a marvel of both
biology and physics.
General characteristics
1. Excitability
› the ability to receive and respond to a stimulus
› in skeletal muscle, the stimulus is a neurotransmitter (chemical signal)
release by a neuron (nerve cell).
› In smooth muscle, the stimulus could be a neurotransmitter, a hormone,
stretch, pH, Pco2, or Po2.
› In cardiac muscle, the stimulus could be a neurotransmitter, a hormone, or
stretch.
› The response is the generation of an electrical impulse that travels along
the plasma membrane of the muscle cell.
2. Contractility
› The ability to shorten forcibly when adequately stimulated.
› This is the defining property of muscle tissue.
2. Extensibility
› the ability to be stretched (Extended)
4. Elasticity
› the ability to recoil and resume original length after being stretched.
Functions
› Movement
› Locomotion
› Maintains posture
› Produces heat
› Facial expressions
› Pumps blood
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› Peristalsis
3 Types of Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Description: Long striated cells with multiple nuclei.
Function: Contraction for voluntary movements.
Location: In skeletal muscle.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Description: Long, spindle shaped cells, each with a single nucleus.
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Function: Propulsion of substances along internal passageways.
Location: In hollow organs(e.g.
stomach)
Cardiac Muscle tissue
Description:
Branching, striated
cells fused at plasma
membranes.
Function: Pumping of
blood in the circulatory
system.
Location: Wall of heart.
NERVE TISSUE
By far the most complex tissue in the human body is nerve tissue.
Formed by a network of more than 100 million nerve cells, assisted by many
more glial cells.
Each neuron has, on an average, at least a thousand interconnection with
other neurons forming a very complex nervous system.
Functions
ü Regulates & controls body functions
ü Generates & transmits nerve impulses
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ü Supports, insulates and protects
impulse generating neurons.
Composition of Nerve Tissue
The nerve tissue is composed of two
elements:
1. The nerve cell or neuron
2. The neuroglia
Neuron
Description: Neurons are branching
cells; cell processes that may be
quite long extend from the nucleus-containing cell body.
Function: Transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to
effectors(muscles and glands) that control their activity.
Location: Brain, spinal cord and nerves.
Glial cells
Glia carry nutrients, speed repair, provide myelin for axons, support the
bloodbrain barrier, and may form their own communication network. They
are also involved in neurogenesis.
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MEMBRANES
Membranes are sheets of epithelial tissue and their supporting connective tissue that cover
or line internal structures or cavities. The main membranes are:
1. Mucous
2. Serous
3. Synovial.
1. Mucous membrane: This is the moist lining of the alimentary tract, respiratory tract
and genitourinary tracts and is sometimes referred to as the mucosa. The membrane
consists of epithelial cells, some of which produce a secretion called mucus. As the cells
fill up with mucus they have the appearance of a goblet and are known as goblet cells.
Organs lined by mucous membrane have a moist slippery surface. Mucus protects the
lining membrane from mechanical and chemical injury and in the respiratory tract it
traps inhaled foreign particles, preventing them from entering the alveoli of the lungs.
2. Serous membrane: Serous membranes, or serosa, secrete serous watery fluid. They
consist of a double layer of loose areolar connective tissue lined by simple squamous
epithelium. The parietal layer lines a cavity and the visceral layer surrounds organs
within the cavity. The two layers are separated by serous fluid secreted by the
epithelium. The serous fluid between the visceral and parietal layers enables an organ
to glide freely within the cavity without being damaged by friction. There are three sites
where serous membranes are found:
a. the pleura lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs
b. the pericardium lining the pericardial cavity and surrounding the heart
c. the peritoneum lining the abdominal cavity and surrounding abdominal organ.
3. Synovial membrane: This membrane is found lining the joint cavities and surrounding
tendon, e.g. over the wrist joint. It is made up of a layer of fine, flattened epithelial cells
on a layer of delicate connective tissue. Synovial membrane secretes clear, sticky, oily
synovial fluid, which acts as a lubricant to the joints and helps to maintain their stability.
GLANDS
Glands are groups of epithelial cells which produce specialized secretions.
EXOCRINE GLANDS (DUCT GLANDS):
Which discharge their secretions directly on the surface Example: sweat gland or
through a duct example salivary gland
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ENDOCRINE GLAND (DUCTLESS GLANS):
Which discharge their secretions in to blood and lymph. They do not have a duct.
These secretions are called hormones.
Example: thyroid hormone, insulin