The digestive system breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The mouth breaks down food with teeth and saliva. The esophagus transports food to the stomach, where acids and enzymes digest it. The pancreas and liver produce enzymes and bile to emulsify and further break down food in the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed into blood. The large intestine absorbs water before waste is excreted.
The digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. The alimentary canal forms a continuous tube that is open to the outside environment at both ends. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
This is about the general physiology of sense organs for medical and paramedical professional beginners who choose pharmacy, nursing and physiotherapy to study.
The digestive system includes the organs of the alimentary canal and accessory structures. The alimentary canal forms a continuous tube that is open to the outside environment at both ends. The organs of the alimentary canal are the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
This is about the general physiology of sense organs for medical and paramedical professional beginners who choose pharmacy, nursing and physiotherapy to study.
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The spinal cord is connected to the brain at the brain stem and is covered by the vertebrae of the spine.
The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule.
This was done as a Student presentation on the kidney.
Here following topics are covered.
Macroscopic structure of the urinary system
Microscopic anatomy of the urinary system
Functions of the nephron
Renal blood supply
Kidneys and blood pressure regulation
Structure of ureters and urinary bladder to perform its function
Renal failure
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls most body functions, including awareness, movements, sensations, thoughts, speech and memory. The spinal cord is connected to the brain at the brain stem and is covered by the vertebrae of the spine.
The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule.
This was done as a Student presentation on the kidney.
Here following topics are covered.
Macroscopic structure of the urinary system
Microscopic anatomy of the urinary system
Functions of the nephron
Renal blood supply
Kidneys and blood pressure regulation
Structure of ureters and urinary bladder to perform its function
Renal failure
2. DIGESTION • The process of conversion of complex food substances to simple absorbable forms is called digestion. • Digestion is carried out by our digestive system by mechanical and biochemical methods.
3. PHASES OF DIGESTION • The activities of the digestive system can be grouped under five main headings. • Ingestion :-This is the taking of food into the alimentary tract, i.e. eating and drinking. • Propulsion :-This mixes and moves the contents along the alimentary tract. • Digestion :-This consists of: • Mechanical breakdown of food by mastication(chewing). • Chemical digestion of food into small molecules by enzymes present in secretions produced by glands and accessory organs of the digestive system
THIS PRESENTATION INCLUDES DETAILED INFORMATION ABOUT ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM..i,e TEETH, TONGUE, SALIVARY GLANDS, PANCREAS, LIVER AND GALL BLADDER
1 GNM Anatomy Unit - 7 GIT by thirumurugan.pptxthiru murugan
By:M. Thiru murugan
Unit - 7
Structure and functions of the alimentary tract & is accessory organs.
The process of digestion, absorption & metabolism of food constituents
Digestive system
Also known as gastrointestinal tract, digestive tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut, or alimentary canal.
Consist of alimentary tract and Accessory organs
It involve in Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption & Excretion
It is started from mouth and ended at anal canal
Parts of Digestive System
Accessory organs:
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Diagram
Functions of Digestive System
Ingestion: taking of food into the GIT. i.e. eating & drinking.
Propulsion: mixes & moves the contents along the GIT
Digestion: breakdown of food
Absorption: this is the process by which digested food substances pass into the blood for circulation.
Elimination: undigested food substances removed from the GIT as feces by the process of defecation.
Mouth:
First part of GIT
The mouth is an oval-shaped cavity inside the skull.
Parts:
Lips (Labia), vestibule, mouth cavity, gums, teeth, hard & soft palate, tongue and salivary glands. The mouth is also known as the oral cavity or the buccal cavity.
Function of mouth:
Mastication (chewing) of food
Mixing masticated food with saliva
Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
Allowing for the sense of taste
Tongue or Lingua:
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth.
Small parts called papillae give the tongue its rough structure.
Many taste buds present on the surfaces of the papillae
Taste buds are sensory organs that are found on your tongue and allow you to experience tastes that are sweet, salty, sour, and bitter
Function of tongue:
Mastication
Deglutition
Speech
Taste
Oral cleaning
Teeth:
The teeth are the hardest white in oral cavity.
There are 20 temporary or deciduous teeth(10 in each Jaw 4 incisors, 2 canines & 4 molars)
The permanent or secondary teeth 32 teeth(16 in each jaw - 4 incisors, 2 canines, 4 premolars & 6 molars )
Function of teeth:
Chewing food
Cutting and grinding food
speech
Structure of tooth:
Crown: part protrude from gums or gingiva
Neck: in between crown & root
Root: bottom part of the tooth; may be single, double, or triple root embedded in bone
Enamel: The hardest, white outer part of the tooth.
Dentin: A layer underlying the enamel.
Pulp: The softer, living inner structure of teeth. Blood vessels and nerves run through the pulp of the teeth.
Cementum: A layer that attach the roots of the teeth to the gums and jawbone.
Periodontal ligament: Tissue that helps hold the teeth tightly in jaw.
Salivary glands:
It secreting saliva
There are 3 types
Parotid - each side of the face
Submandibular - below the mandibular
Sublingual – below the tongue
All have ducts to supply saliva in mouth
Functions: chewing and swallowing, Lubricating effect, dissolves food, taste food, Cleaning mouth, fight against pathogenic microorganisms
Pharynx:
Muscular tube situated behind th
Digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble food molecules into small water-soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed into the watery blood plasma. In certain organisms, these smaller substances are absorbed through the small intestine into the blood stream.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
3. WHAT IS THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM?
• The gastrointestinal tract (digestive
tract, digestional tract, GI tract, GIT, gut,
or alimentary canal) is an organ system within
humans and other animals which takes in
food, digests it and absorb energy and nutrients, and
expels the remaining waste as feces.
• The major organs of the digestive system:
• Mouth.
• Pharynx.
• Esophagus.
• Stomach.
• Small Intestine.
• Large Intestine.
• Rectum.
4. Accessory digestive organs:
liver
gallbladder
pancreas.
Salivary gland
Functions of GI tract
• Ingestion: taking of food into the alimentary tract.
i.e. eating & drinking.
• Propulsion:mixes & moves the contents along the
alimentary tract.
• Digestion:consist of:
• Mechanical breakdown of food e.g. mastication
(chewing)
• Chemical digestion of food into small molecules by
enzymes.
5. • Absorption:this is the process by which
digested food substances pass through the walls
of some organs of the walls of some organs of
the alimentary canal into the blood for
circulation.
• Elimination:food substances that have been
eaten but cannot be digested & absorbed are
excreted from the alimentary canal as faeces by
the process of defaecation.
6. MOUTH
• The mouth is the first portion of the alimentary
canal that receives food and produces saliva.
• The oral mucosa is the mucous
membrane epithelium lining the inside of the
mouth.
• Relations:
• Anteriorly-lips
• Posteriorly-continue with the oropharynx
• Laterally-muscles of cheeks
• Superiorly-bony hard palate
• Inferiorly-muscular tongue & the soft tissues of the
floor of the mouth
7.
8. • The palate forms the roof of the mouth & is divided
into the anterior hard palate & posterior soft
palate.
• The uvula is a curved fold of muscle covered with
mucous membrane,hanging down from the middle.
• TONGUE
• The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth, that
manipulates food for mastication, and is used in
the act of swallowing.
• It is of importance in the digestive system and is
the primary organ of taste in the gustatory system.
9. • The tongue's upper surface (dorsum) is covered
by taste buds housed in numerous lingual papillae.
• The human tongue is divided into two parts,
an oral part at the front and a pharyngeal part at
the back.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• lingual artery
• external carotid artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• lingual veins
• internal jugular vein
• NERVE SUPPLY
• hypoglossal nerve
• Taste and sensation: glossopharyngeal nerve
10.
11. • FUNCTIONS
• Mastication (chewing)
• Deglutition (swallowing)
• Speech
• Taste
• TEETH
• The human teeth function to mechanically break
down items of food by cutting and crushing them in
preparation for swallowing and digesting. Humans
have four types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars,
and molars, each with a specific function.
12.
13. • PRIMARY TEETH
• Among deciduous (primary) teeth, ten are found in
the maxilla (upper jaw) and ten in the mandible
(lower jaw), for a total of 20. The dental formula for
primary teeth is 2.1.0.2/2.1.0.2.
• Start to come in (erupt) at about 6 months of age
• In the primary set of teeth,
• two types of incisors – centrals and laterals,one
canine & two types of molars – first and second.
• All primary teeth are normally later replaced with
their permanent counterparts.
14. • PERMANENT TEETH
• Among permanent teeth, 16 are found in the maxilla
and 16 in the mandible, for a total of 32. The dental
formula is 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3.
• Age 21, all 32 of the permanent teeth have usually
erupted.
• The permanent teeth are the:
• Two incisor (for cutting)-central incisor, lateral incisor
• One canine (for tearing)
• Two premolar(for crushing)-first premolar, second
premolar,
• Three molar (for grinding)-first molar, second molar,
and third molar.
15.
16. • PARTS
• ENAMEL
• Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized
substance of the body.
• It is one of the four major tissues which make up the
tooth, along with dentin, cementum, and dental pulp.
• 96% of enamel consists of mineral, with water and
organic material comprising the rest.
• The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to
grayish white.
• DENTIN
• Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum
and the pulp chamber.
• The porous, yellow-hued material is made up of 70%
inorganic materials, 20% organic materials, and 10%
water by weight
17. • Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an
organic matrix of collagenous proteins.
• CEMENTUM
• Cementum is a specialized bone like substance
covering the root of a tooth.
• Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than
dentin and enamel.
• DENTAL PULP
• The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth
filled with soft connective tissue.
• This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that
enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the
root.
18. FUNCTIONS OF TEETH
• Two incisor -for cutting
• One canine -for tearing
• Two premolar-for crushing
• Three molar-for grinding
• ERUPTION
• Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth
development in which the teeth enter the
mouth and become visible.
• Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from
around six months until two years of age.
20. SALIVARY GLANDS
• The salivary glands in are exocrine glands that
produce saliva through a system of ducts.
• Humans have 3 paired major salivary glands:
• Parotid
• submandibular and
• Sublingual
• as well hundreds of minor salivary glands.
• Parotid glands
• The two parotid glands are major salivary glands
wrapped around the mandibular ramus in humans.
• The largest of the salivary glands.
21.
22. • They secrete saliva to
facilitate mastication and swallowing,
and amylase to begin the digestion of starches.
• It enters the oral cavity via the parotid duct.
• Submandibular glands
• The submandibular glands are a pair of major
salivary glands located beneath the lower jaws,
superior to the digastric muscles.
• The secretion produced is a mixture of
both serous fluid and mucus, and enters the oral
cavity via the submandibular duct.
23. • Sublingual glands
• The sublingual glands are a pair of major salivary
glands located inferior to the tongue, anterior to the
submandibular glands.
• Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity
comes from these glands.
• The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature
• Minor salivary glands
• There are 800 to 1,000 minor salivary glands located
throughout the oral cavity within the submucosa of
the oral mucosa in the tissue of the buccal,and
lingual mucosa
24. • BLOOD SUPPLY
• External carotid artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• Jugular veins
• COMPOSITION OF SALIVA
• About 1.5 litres of saliva is produced daily & it consists
of:
• Water
• Mineral salts
• An enzyme
• Mucus
• Lysozyme
• Immunoglobulins
25. • FUNCTION OF SALIVA
• Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and
to the maintenance of oral hygiene.
• Without normal salivary function the frequency
of dental caries, gum disease and other oral
problems increases significantly.
• Lubricant
• Saliva, coats the oral mucosa, mechanically
protecting it from trauma during eating,
swallowing and speaking.
• In people with little saliva soreness of the
mouth is very common, and the food (especially
dry food) sticks to the inside of the mouth.
26. • Digestion
• The digestive functions of saliva include moistening
food and helping to create a food bolus.
• This lubricative function of saliva allows the food
bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the
esophagus.
• Role in taste
• Saliva is very important in the sense of taste.
• It is the liquid medium in which chemicals are
carried to taste receptor cells (mostly associated
with lingual papillae).
27. • Other Function
• Saliva maintains the pH of the mouth. Saliva is
supersaturated with various ions.
• THE PHARYNX
• The pharynx is the part of the throat that is
behind the mouth and nasal cavity and above
the esophagus and the larynx, or the tubes
going down to the stomach and the lungs.
• The pharynx is the portion of the digestive tract
that receives the food from your mouth.
• Branching off the pharynx is the esophagus,
which carries food to the stomach,
28. • THE ESOPHAGUS
• The esophagus or oesophagus,commonly known
as the food pipe or gullet, The esophagus is a
muscular tube connecting the throat (pharynx)
with the stomach.
• The esophagus runs behind the windpipe
(trachea) and heart, and in front of the spine.
• Length :25 cm
• Diameter:2 cm
29.
30.
31. • STRUCTURE
• The wall of the esophagus from the lumen
outwards consists of mucosa, submucosa
(connective tissue), layers of muscle fibers
between layers of fibrous tissue, and an outer
layer of connective tissue.
• The mucosa is a stratified squamous
epithelium of around three layers of
squamous cells, which contrasts to the single
layer of columnar cells of the stomach.
• Most of the muscle is smooth muscle
although striated muscle predominates in its
upper third.
32. • It has two muscular rings or sphincters in its
wall, one at the top and one at the bottom.
• A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally
maintains constriction of a natural body
passage or orifice and which relaxes as required
by normal physiological functioning.
• The lower sphincter helps to prevent reflux of
acidic stomach content.
33. FUNCTIONS
• Formation of a bolus
• Swallowing
• Food is ingested through the mouth and when
swallowed passes first into the pharynx and then
into the esophagus.
• Reducing gastric reflux
• Constriction of the upper and lower esophageal
sphincters help to prevent reflux (backflow) of
gastric contents and acid into the esophagus,
protecting the esophageal mucosa.
35. STOMACH
• The stomach is a muscular organ located on
the left side of the upper abdomen. The
stomach receives food from the esophagus.
• As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it
enters the stomach through a muscular valve
called the lower esophageal sphincter.
36.
37.
38. • Relations:
• Anteriorly-left lobe of liver & anterior
abdominal wall
• Posteriorly-abdominal
aorta,pancreas,spleen,left kidney
• Superiorly-diaphragm,oesophagus & left lobe
of liver
• Inferiorly-transverse colon & small intestine
• Left side-diaphragm & spleen
• Right side-liver & duodenum
39. • A pouch-like organ primarily designed for food
storage (for 2-4 hours) , some mechanical and
chemical digestion also occur .
• Contains two sphincters at both ends to regulate
food movement :
• cardiac sphincter near the esophagus ,
• pyloric sphincter near the small intestine .
• Divided into 4 regions :
• cardiac stomach (or cardiac),
• fundic stomach (or funded) ,
• body of stomach
• pyloric stomach (or Pylorus).
40. •
• Contain thick folds called rugae at its layer , for
providing
• larger surface area for expansion , secretion ,
digestion , and some absorption.
• FUNCTIONS
• Digestion
• The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting
enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid,
which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the
acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work.
• Food is churned by the stomach through muscular
contractions of the wall called peristalsis
41. • Absorption
• some absorption of certain small molecules
nevertheless does occur in the stomach through its
lining
• GASTRIC JUICE
• Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a
digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is
composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium
chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl).
• The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by
activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested
proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break
down the long chains of amino acids.
42. • Gastric Secretory Cells
• Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen (an inactive
enzyme).
• Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric and (HCl)
and "intrinsic factor" (which helps absorption of
vitamin B12 in the intestines).
• Mucous cells: secrete mucus and alkaline
substances to help neutralize HCl in the gastric
juice .
• G cells: secrete a hormone called gastrin , which
stimulates the parietal cells and overall gastric.
44. THE PANCREAS
• The pancreas is a glandular organ in the digestive
system and endocrine system of vertebrates.
• It is located in the abdominal cavity behind the
stomach.
• It is an endocrine gland producing several
important hormones, including insulin, glucagon,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide, all of
which circulate in the blood.
• Length: 15 cm or 6 inch
45.
46.
47. • Structure
• Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into the
head of pancreas,
• the neck of pancreas,
• the body of pancreas,
• and the tail of pancreas.
• The neck is about 2.5 cm or 1 inch long and lies
between the head and the body
• The body is the largest part of the pancreas and
lies behind the pylorus.
• The tail ends by abutting the spleen.
49. • FUNCTION
• The pancreas is involved in blood sugar control and
metabolism within the body.
• Sugar control and metabolism
• pancreatic islets are present in the pancreas.
• Within these islets are four main types of cells which are
involved in the regulation of blood glucose levels.
• Each type of cell secretes a different type of hormone:
• α alpha cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood)
• β beta cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood)
• δ delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β
cells) and
• γ (gamma) cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
50. • THE LIVER
• The liver, an organ only found in vertebrates,
detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins,
and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion
• Relations:
• Anteriorly-diaphragm & anterior abdominal wall
• Posteriorly-oesophagus,inferior vena cava,aorta,gall
bladder,vertebral column &diaphragm
• Laterally-lower ribs & diaphragm
• Superiorly-diaphragm & anterior abdominal wall
• Inferiorly- stomach,bile ducts,duodenum,hepatic
flexure of colon,right kidney
51. • STRUCTURE
• The liver is a reddish-brown wedge-shaped
organ with four lobes of unequal size and
shape.
• weighs 1.44–1.66 kg
• width -15 cm.
• It is both the heaviest internal organ and the
largest gland in the human body.
52.
53. • The liver is grossly divided into two parts when
viewed from above – a right and a left lobe.
• The falciform ligament, divides the liver into a left
and right lobe.
• FUNCTIONS
• Synthesis
• Proteins produced and secreted by the liver.
• The liver plays a major role in carbohydrate, protein,
amino acid, and lipid metabolism.Breakdown
• The liver is responsible for the breakdown of insulin
and other hormones.
54. • The liver breaks down bilirubin via
glucuronidation, facilitating its excretion into bile.
• Other
• The liver stores a multitude of substances,
including glucose (in the form of glycogen)
• vitamin A (1–2 years' supply)
• vitamin D (1–4 months' supply)
• vitamin B12 (3–5 years' supply)
• vitamin K, iron, and copper.
• The liver produces albumin, the most abundant
protein in blood serum.
55. • Contains phagocytes to destroy damaged
erythrocytes and foreign substances, using
phagocytosis .
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• Hepatic artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• Hepatic veins
56. • THE GALLBLADDER
• The gallbladder is a small hollow organ where
bile is stored and concentrated before it is
released into the small intestine.
• In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies
beneath the liver.
57.
58.
59. • STRUCTURE
• sits in a shallow depression below the right lobe of the
liver, that is grey-blue in life.
• Length-7 to 10 cm or 2.8 to 3.9 inches
• Diameter -4 cm or 1.6 inch
• The gallbladder has a capacity of about 50 millilitres
• The gallbladder is shaped like a pear, with its tip
opening into the cystic duct.
• gallbladder is divided into three sections:
• the fundus,
• The body,
• and the neck.
60. • FUNCTIONS
• The main purpose of the gallbladder is to
store bile, also called gall, needed for the
digestion of fats in food.
• bile flows through small vessels into the larger
hepatic ducts and ultimately though the cystic
duct into the gallbladder, where it is stored.
61. • BLOOD SUPPLY
• the cystic artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• the cystic veins
62.
63.
64. • PARTS
• The small intestine is divided into three structural
parts:
• (I)The duodenum
• (II)The jejunum
• (III)The ileum
• The duodenum is a short structure ranging from
20 cm to 25 cm in length, and shaped like a "C".
• The jejunum is the midsection of the small
intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum.
It is about 2.5 m long.
65. • The ileum is the final section of the small
intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi
similar to the jejunum.
• FUNCTIONS
• Digestion
• The small intestine is where most chemical
digestion takes place.
• Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the
small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and
liver and enter the small intestine via the
pancreatic duct.
• Digestion of proteins & carbohydrate
66. • Absorption
• Digested food is now able to pass into the blood
vessels in the wall of the intestine through
either diffusion or active transport.
• The small intestine is the site where most of
the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed.
• Immunological
• The small intestine supports the body's immune
system.
• The presence of gut flora appears to contribute
positively to the host's immune system.
67. • BLOOD SUPPLY
• the coeliac trunk
• the superior mesenteric artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• the superior mesenteric veins
68. THE LARGE INTESTINE
• The large intestine, also known as the large
bowel or colon, is the last part of the
gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive
system in vertebrates.
• Water is absorbed here and the remaining
waste material is stored as feces before being
removed by defecation.
69.
70. • STRUCTURE
• The length of male colon is 166 cm .
• female colon 155 cm
• The colon consists of five sections:
• the cecum
• ascending colon,
• the transverse colon,
• the descending colon,
• the sigmoid colon and the rectum.
71. • Sections of the colon are:
• The ascending colon including the cecum and
appendix
• The transverse colon including the colic
flexures and transverse mesocolon
• The descending colon
• The sigmoid colon – the s-shaped region of
the large intestine
72. • The average inner diameter of sections of the
colon in centimeters
• cecum 8.7cm
• ascending colon 6.6cm
• transverse colon 5.8cm
• descending/sigmoid colon 6.3cm
• and rectum near rectal/sigmoid junction
5.7cm
73. • The cecum
• The cecum is the first section of the colon and
involved in the digestion, while the appendix is a
structure of the colon, not involved in digestion.
• The function of the appendix is uncertain.
• Containing Ileocecal valve
• The ileocecal valve is a sphincter muscle valve that
separates the small intestine and the large
intestine.
• Its critical function is to limit the reflux of colonic
contents into the ileum.
74. • The ascending colon
• It is connected to the small intestine by a
section of bowel called the cecum.
• The ascending colon runs upwards through the
abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon
for approximately eight inches or 20 cm.
• The unwanted waste material is moved
upwards toward the transverse colon by the
action of peristalsis.
• Peristalsis is a radially symmetrical contraction
and relaxation of muscles that propagates in a
wave down a tube
•
75. • Transverse colon
• The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the
hepatic flexure to the splenic flexure.
• Descending colon
• The descending colon is the part of the colon from
the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid
colon,descending colon is also called the distal gut.
• One function of the descending colon in the digestive
system is to store feces that will be emptied into the
rectum.
76. • Sigmoid colon
• The sigmoid colon is the part of the large
intestine after the descending colon and before
the rectum.
• The name sigmoid means S-shaped .
• The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular,
and contract to increase the pressure inside the
colon, causing the stool to move into the
rectum.
• Rectum
• The rectum is the last section of the large
intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting
elimination via defecation.
77. • the anus
• The anus is the external opening of
the rectum.
• Its function is to control the expulsion of
feces.
• Two sphincters control the exit of feces from
the body during an act of defecation.
• These are the internal anal sphincter and
the external anal sphincter, which are
circular muscles that normally maintain
constriction of the orifice and which relaxes as
required by normal physiological functioning.
78. • FUNCTIONS
• The large intestine absorbs water and any
remaining absorbable nutrients from the food
before sending the indigestible matter to the
rectum.
• The colon absorbs vitamins that are created
by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K.
• Gut flora
• The large intestine houses over 700 species of
bacteria that perform a variety of functions.
• The large intestine absorbs some of the
products formed by the bacteria inhabiting
this region.
79. • Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are
metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by
bacteria in the large intestine.
• BLOOD SUPPLY
• the superior mesenteric artery (SMA)
• and inferior mesenteric artery
• VENOUS DRAINAGE
• the inferior mesenteric vein
• the superior mesenteric vein
80. PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION
• The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract.
• Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more
easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to
begin the process of breaking it down into a form
your body can absorb and use.
• From pharynx food travels to the esophagus or
swallowing tube.
• By means of a series of contractions, called
peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the
stomach.
• The lower esophageal sphincter keep food from
passing backwards into the esophagus.
•
81. • The stomach secretes acid and powerful enzymes
that continue the process of breaking down the
food.
• When it leaves the stomach, food is the
consistency of a liquid or paste.
• From there the food moves to the small intestine.
• The small intestine continues the process of
breaking down food by using enzymes released
by the pancreas and bile from the liver.
• Bile is a compound that aids in the digestion of
fat and eliminates waste products from the
blood.
82. • Peristalsis is also at work in this organ, moving
food through and mixing it up with digestive
secretions.
• The duodenum is largely responsible for
continuing the process of breaking down food,
with the jejunum and ileum being mainly
responsible for the absorption of nutrients into
the bloodstream.
• pancreas secretes enzymes into the small
intestine.
• These enzymes break down protein, fat, and
carbohydrates from the food we eat.
83. • Stool, or waste left over from the digestive
process, is passed through the colon by means
of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and
ultimately in solid form as the water is
removed from the stool.
• A stool is stored in the sigmoid colon until a
"mass movement" empties it into the rectum
once or twice a day.