The document discusses various aspects of temperature measurement, including temperature scales, methods, and the principles of different thermometers such as bimetallic, liquid-in-glass, and gas-filled thermometers. It explains temperature definitions, the laws of thermoelectricity, and the relevance of effects like the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects in temperature measurement. Additionally, it highlights the advantages and disadvantages of various temperature measurement methods and instruments.

1. TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
PART I of II
ER. FARUK BIN POYEN, Asst. Professor
DEPT. OF AEIE, UIT, BU, BURDWAN, WB, INDIA
faruk.poyen@gmail.com

2. Contents:
 Temperature Scales
 Fahrenheit and Centigrade
 Kelvin and Rankine
 Reaumur
 International Practical Temperature Scale
 Methods of Temperature Measurement
 Expansion Thermometer
 Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of Solid)
 Liquid in Glass Thermometer (Expansion of Liquid)
 Liquid in Metal Thermometer (Expansion of Liquid)
 Gas Thermometer
 Filled System Thermometer
 Liquid filled Thermometer
 Mercury filled Thermometer
 Vapour pressure Thermometer
2

3. Temperature Measurement:
 Temperature is defined as the condition of a body by virtue of which heat is transferred
to and from other bodies. The degree of hotness or coldness of a body or an
environment is measured on a definite scale.
 Temperature cannot be measured directly but must be measured by observing the effect
that temperature variation causes on the measuring device. The methods are broadly
classified into three classes.
 Non – Electrical
 Electrical
 Radiation
3

4. Temperature Scales:
 Absolute Temperature (Kelvin scale): K = °C + 273.15,
 °C being temperature in Celsius scale.
 Absolute Scale (Rankine scale): R = °F + 459.69,
 °F being temperature in Fahrenheit scale.
 [
𝑇2
𝑇1
] 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒= [
𝑇2
𝑇1
] 𝐾𝑒𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛
 ℉ = 32 +
9
5
℃ ≡
℃
100
=
℉−32
180
 R =
9
5
K
 Reaumur Scale: R’ assigns 0° R’ to the ice – point and 80° R’ to the steam – point and often finds use in
alcohol industry.
 Lower fixed point or ice – point is the temperature of ice prepared from distilled water at 760 mm of
mercury.
 Upper fixed point or steam – point is the temperature of steam prepared from distilled water boiling at 760
mm of mercury.
4

5. Basic Fixed Points:
 Boiling Point: The temperature at which substance changes from liquid
to gas.
 Freezing Point: The temperature at which substance changes from liquid
to solid.
 Triple Point: A particular temperature and pressure at which three
different phases of one substance can exist in equilibrium. According to
Gibb’s phase rule, a three – phase situation in a component leaves it
with no degrees of freedom.
 Absolute Zero: The temperature at which molecular motion completely
ceases.
5

6. Important Laws in Temperature Measurement
 Mentioned below are few of the rudimentary laws that find applications
in the measurement process of temperature. These laws show correlation
between temperature and potential differences.
 Seebeck Effect
 Peltier Effect
 Thompson Effect
 Thermoelectric Effect
 Law of Homogeneous Material
 Law of Intermediate Metal
 Law of Intermediate Temperature
6

7. Thermoelectric Effect
 The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences to
electric voltages and vice versa.
 A thermoelectric device creates voltage when there is a different temperature on each
side. Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference. At
the atomic scale, an applied temperature gradient causes charge carriers in the material
to diffuse from the hot side to the cold side.
 This effect can be used to generate electricity, measure temperature or change the
temperature of objects. As the direction of heating and cooling is determined by the
polarity of the applied voltage, thermoelectric devices can be used as temperature
controllers.
 The term "thermoelectric effect" encompasses three separately identified effects: the
Seebeck effect, Peltier effect, and Thomson effect.
 The Peltier–Seebeck and Thomson effects are thermodynamically reversible.
7

8. Seebeck Effect
 The Seebeck effect: Temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical
conductors or semiconductors produces a voltage difference between them.
 The Seebeck effect is the conversion of temperature differences directly
into electricity.
 The local current density J is given by
𝑱 = 𝝈(−𝛁𝑽 + 𝑬 𝒆𝒎𝒇)
 where V is the local voltage and σ is the local conductivity.
 In general, the Seebeck effect is described locally by the creation of an electromotive
field
𝑬 𝒆𝒎𝒇 = −𝑺𝛁𝑻
where S is the Seebeck coefficient (also known as thermo power), a property of the local
material, and 𝛻𝑇 is the gradient in temperature T.
8

9. 9

10. Peltier Effect
 The Peltier effect is a temperature difference created by applying a voltage between
two electrodes connected to a sample of semiconductor material. This phenomenon can
be useful when it is necessary to transfer heat from one medium to another on a small
scale.
 The Peltier heat generated at the junction per unit time, Q, is equal to
𝑄 = (𝛱𝐴 − 𝛱 𝐵)𝐼
where 𝛱𝐴 (𝛱 𝐵) is the Peltier coefficient of conductor A (B), and I is the electric current
(from A to B). Note that the total heat generated at the junction is not determined by the
Peltier effect alone, as it may also be influenced by Joule heating and thermal gradient
effects.
10

11. 11

12. Thomson Effect
 Thermoelectric couples: Consist of positive and negative elements connected
electrically in series and parallel in heat flow.
 Thomson Effect: The Thomson effect describes the heating or cooling of a current
carrying conductor with a temperature gradient.
Consider a conductor which is subject to the longitudinal temperature gradient and also to
the potential difference such that there is a flow of current and heat in conductor. The
Thomson effect describes the mechanism that a current flowing in a wire in which a
temperature gradient is present shows a heat exchange with its environment.
𝑸 = 𝑲𝑱𝛁𝑻, 𝑲 = 𝑻
𝒅𝑺
𝒅𝑻
,
where K = Thomson coefficient, J = current density and 𝛻𝑇 = temperature gradient. S =
Seeback coefficient
12

13. Laws of Thermoelectricity
 Law of Homogeneous Materials: - A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a
single homogeneous material by the application of heat alone, regardless of how much
it might vary in cross-section.
 Law of Intermediate Material: - The algebraic sum of thermoelectric forces in circuit
composed of any number of dissimilar materials is Zero if all of the circuit is at same
temperature.
 Law of Successive or Intermediate Temperature: - If two dissimilar homogeneous
materials produce thermal (emf)1 when the junctions are T1 and T2 and produce
thermal (emf)2 when the junction are at T2 and T3, the emf generated when the junction
are at temperature T1 and T3 will be (emf)1 + (emf)2.
13

14. 14

15. Methods of Temperature Measurement
 Expansion Thermometer
 Bimetallic Thermometer
(Expansion of Solid)
 Liquid in Glass Thermometer
(Expansion of Liquid)
 Liquid in Metal Thermometer
(Expansion of Liquid)
 Gas Thermometer
 Filled System Thermometer
 Liquid filled Thermometer
 Mercury filled Thermometer
 Vapour pressure Thermometer
 Electrical Temperature Instrument
 Resistance Thermometer
 Thermocouple
 Thermistor
 Thermopile
 Pyrometer
 Radiation Pyrometer
 Optical Pyrometer
 Other Methods of Temperature Measurement
 Quartz Thermometer
 Solid State Temperature Measurement
 Optical Fibre Temperature Measurement
 Ultrasonic Thermometer
15

16. Expansion Methods of Measurement
 Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of Solid)
 Liquid in Glass Thermometer (Expansion of Liquid)
 Liquid in Metal Thermometer (Expansion of Liquid)
 Gas Thermometer
16

17. Bimetallic Thermometer (Expansion of Solid)
 Made up of bimetallic strips formed by joining two different metals having different
thermal expansion coefficients.
 Basically, bimetallic strip is a mechanical element which can sense temperature and
transform it into a mechanical displacement.
 This mechanical action from the bimetallic strip can be used to activate a switching
mechanism for getting electronic output.
 Also it can be attached to the pointer of a measuring instrument or a position indicator.
Various techniques such as riveting, bolting, fastening can be used to bond two layers
of diverse metals in a bimetallic strip.
 However the most commonly used method is welding.
 Since two metals are employed to construct a bimetallic strip, hence they are named so.
17

18. Bimetallic Strip: Working Principle
 Different metals expand at different rates as they warm up.
 Two dissimilar metals behave in a different manner when exposed to temperature
variations owing to their different thermal expansion rates.
 One layer of metal expands or contracts more than the other layer of metal in a
bimetallic strip arrangement which results in bending or curvature change of the strip.
 One end of a straight bimetallic strip is fixed in place. As the strip is heated, the other
end tends to curve away from the side that has the greater coefficient of linear
expansion.
18

19. Bimetallic Strip: Features
 Range: -103 ° F to 1000 ° F (-75 ° C – 540 ° C)
 Advantages:
Low cost
Tough
Easy installation and maintenance
Good accuracy
Wide temperature range
 Disadvantages:
Limited to local mounting
Only indicating type
Calibration may change due to rough handling
Accuracy is not the best
19

20. Liquid-In-Glass Thermometers
 It mainly comprises:
 A bulb which acts as a container for the functioning liquid where it can easily expand
or contract in capacity.
 A stem, “a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at
the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a working liquid”.
 A temperature scale which is basically preset or imprinted on the stem for displaying
temperature readings.
 Point of reference i.e. a calibration point which is most commonly the ice point.
 A working liquid which is generally either mercury or alcohol.
 An inert gas, mainly argon or nitrogen which is filled inside the thermometer above
mercury to trim down its volatilization.
20

21. Liquid-In-Glass Thermometers - Principle
 The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent
thermal expansion of the liquid.
 It is the difference between the volumetric reversible thermal expansion
of the liquid and its glass container that makes it possible to measure
temperature.
21

22. Liquid-In-Glass Thermometers - Features
 Range of -200 °C to 600°C.
 Advantages:
 Comparatively cheaper
 Handy and convenient to use.
 They do not necessitate power supply or batteries for charging.
 They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of electricity.
 Very good repeatability and calibration remains unaffected
 Limitations:
 Not very accurate
 Short temperature range
 Weaker and more delicate than electrical thermometers
 Subject to parallax error
22

23. Liquid in Metal Thermometer
 A thermometer in which the thermally sensitive element is a liquid contained in a metal
envelope, frequently in the form of a Bourdon tube.
 A liquid in metal thermometer in which mercury has been used as liquid and the metal
is steel.
 This mercury-in-steel thermometer works on exactly the same principle as the liquid-
in-glass thermometer.
 The glass bulb is replaced by a steel bulb and the glass capillary tube by one of
stainless steel.
 As mercury in the system is not visible, a Bourdon tube is used to measure the change
in its volume.
23

24. Liquid in Metal Thermometer - Principle
 When the temperature to be measured rises, the mercury in the bulb expands more than
the bulb so that some mercury is driven through the capillary tube into the Bourdon
tube.
 As the temperature continues to rise, increasing amounts of mercury will be driven into
the Bourdon tube, causing it to bend.
 One end of the Bourdon tube is fixed, while the motion of the other end is
communicated to the pointer which moves on a calibrated temperature scale.
24

25. Liquid in Metal Thermometer
 The thermometer bulb is also placed in a protective pocket where the gas or liquid
whose temperature is being measured, is at a pressure other than atmospheric.
 In this case the pocket prevents the bulb being subjected to this pressure and also
enables the bulb to be changed without shutting down the plant.
 The capillary tube used in the mercury-in-steel thermometer is usually made from
stainless steel, as mercury will combine with other metals.
 Changes of temperature affect the capillary and the mercury it contains, and hence the
thermometer reading.
 Generally, mercury is used as a liquid. But it has its limitations, particularly at the
lower end of the temperature scale.
 For this and other reasons, other liquids are also used sometimes in place of mercury.
25

26. Gas Filled Thermometer
 The filled thermal device consists of a primary element that takes the form of a
reservoir or bulb, a flexible capillary tube, and a hollow Bourdon tube that actuates a
signal-transmitting device and/or a local indicating temperature dial.
 The filling fluid, either liquid or gas, expands as temperature increases.
 This causes the Bourdon tube to uncoil and indicate the temperature on a calibrated
dial.
 The filling or transmitting medium is a vapour, a gas, mercury, or another liquid.
 The liquid-filled system is the most common because it requires a bulb with the
smallest volume or permits a smaller instrument to be used.
26

27. Gas Filled Thermometer
 The gas-filled system uses the perfect gas law, which states the following for an ideal
gas:
T = k P V, where:
T = temperature; k = constant; P = pressure; V = volume;
 If the volume of gas in the measuring instrument is kept constant, then the ratio of the
gas pressure and temperature is constant, so that
27

28. Filled System Thermometer
 Filled system thermometers consist of Bourdon tube, a capillary tube and a
thermometer bulb all interconnected.
 The entire point is sealed after appropriate liquid filling at NTP and commonly used
liquids are mercury, ethyl alcohol, xylene and toluene.
 Liquid expands or contracts with gain or loss of heat till measured temperature is
attained leading to the expansion or contraction of the Bourdon tube which
subsequently moves a pointer for indication.
 Types are:
 Gas filled (Gas Filled Thermometers)
 Liquid filled
 Mercury filled
 Vapour filled
28

29. Filled System Thermometer
 Liquid Filled Thermometer: They work on the principle of liquid expansion with temperature
rise. The filling liquid is usually an inert hydrocarbon viz. xylene which has six times more
expansion co-efficient than mercury decreasing the bulb position. One criterion to be maintained
is that the pressure inside must be greater than the vapour pressure of liquid to prevent formation
of bubbles inside. Solidification of liquid is also not permitted.
 Mercury Filled Thermometer: Similar to that of liquid filled thermometers but provides rapid
response, accuracy and plenty of power. Pressure is as high as 1200 psig to as low as 400 psig.
The high pressure reduces the head effect. They are normally contained in stainless steel bulb
increasing the corrosion resistance.
 Vapour Filled Thermometer: Here the bulb is partially filled with liquid and partially with
vapour. Some of the liquid vaporises during operation. The liquid inside boils and vaporises
creating gas inside the system. The liquid continues to boil until pressure balance is obtained
between systems and vapour pressure. Here liquid stops boiling unless temperature rises.
Similarly, when temperature drops, liquid and vapour inside also cool causing some vapour to
condense, bringing down the pressure inside. When pressure inside equals vapour pressure, this
action stops. Due to changes in pressure, bourdon tube uncoils or tightens with increase or
decrease of pressure indicating temperature on a pointer scale.
29

30. Filled System Thermometer - Features
 Sources of Error in Filled – System Thermometers:
 Ambient temperature effect
 Head or elevation effect
 Barometric effect
 Immersion effect
 Radiation effect
 Advantages of Filled System Thermometer
 Rugged construction
 Low maintenance
 No electric power requirement
 Satisfactory time response
 Low cost
 Capillary allows considerable separation between measurement point and temperature point
 Disadvantages of Filled System Thermometers:
 Large bulb required for better accuracy
 Requires full scale replacement if found faulty
 Accuracy, sensitivity and span are on the lower side compared to electrical methods
 Not great temperature range ability
30

31. References:
 Chapter 13: Temperature Measurement, “Industrial Instrumentation and Control” by S
K Singh. Tata McGraw Hill, 3rd Edition. 2009, New Delhi. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-
026222-5.
 Chapter 11: Temperature Measurement, “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Analysis”. 2nd Edition, B C Nakra, K K Chaudhry, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi,
2005. ISBN: 0-07-048296-9.
 Chapter 4: Temperature Sensors, “Fundamentals of Industrial Instrumentation”, 1st
Edition, Alok Barua, Wiley India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 2011. ISBN: 978-81-265-
2882-0.
 Chapter 4: Temperature Measurement, “Principles of Industrial Instrumentation”, 2nd
Edition. D. Patranabis, Tata McGaw-Hill, New Delhi, 2004. ISBN: 0-07-462334-6.
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