State of matter and properties of matter (Part-2) (Latent Heat, Vapour pressu...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Latent Heat, Vapour pressure, Factor affecting vapour pressure, Surface area, Types of molecule, Temperature and Intermolecular forces, Sublimation Critical point
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-2) (Latent Heat, Vapour pressu...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
Latent Heat, Vapour pressure, Factor affecting vapour pressure, Surface area, Types of molecule, Temperature and Intermolecular forces, Sublimation Critical point
Surface and Interfacial tension [Part-3(a)](Measurement of Surface and Inter...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
Capillary Rise Method, Drop Count and Weight Method.
Wilhelmy Plate Methods ,The DuNouy Ring Method.
Capillary Rise Method: Upward force due to surface tension: Drop count and Weight method Downward Force: Drop weight method: Drop count method
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-6)(Relative humidity, Liquid ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, Humidity, Wet and Dry Hygrometer, LIQUID COMPLEX, LIQUID CRYSTALS, Types of liquid crystals, GLASSY STATES, Characteristics glassy state, Types of glassy state, What is the Glass Transition Temperature?
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-7)(Solid-crystalline, Amorpho...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
CRYSTALLINE SOLID, Types of Crystalline solid, AMORPHOUS SOLID, Difference between crystalline solid and amorphous solid, Why does the amorphous form of drug have better bioavaibility that crystalline couterpaerts?, Polymorphism,
TYPES OF POLYMORPHISM, PROPERTY OF POLYMORPHS, Methods of preparation of Polymorphs, Methods to determine Polymorphism Characterization of Polymorphs, Pharmaceutical Application
Solubility of liquids in liquids, The term miscibility refers to the mutual solubility of the component of liquid - liquid system, Raoult’s Law, Raoult’s law may be mathematically expressed as: Ideal solution, Real solution
Surface and Interfacial tension [Part-3(a)](Measurement of Surface and Inter...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE AND INTERFACIAL TENSION
Capillary Rise Method, Drop Count and Weight Method.
Wilhelmy Plate Methods ,The DuNouy Ring Method.
Capillary Rise Method: Upward force due to surface tension: Drop count and Weight method Downward Force: Drop weight method: Drop count method
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-6)(Relative humidity, Liquid ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
RELATIVE HUMIDITY, Humidity, Wet and Dry Hygrometer, LIQUID COMPLEX, LIQUID CRYSTALS, Types of liquid crystals, GLASSY STATES, Characteristics glassy state, Types of glassy state, What is the Glass Transition Temperature?
State of matter and properties of matter (Part-7)(Solid-crystalline, Amorpho...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
CRYSTALLINE SOLID, Types of Crystalline solid, AMORPHOUS SOLID, Difference between crystalline solid and amorphous solid, Why does the amorphous form of drug have better bioavaibility that crystalline couterpaerts?, Polymorphism,
TYPES OF POLYMORPHISM, PROPERTY OF POLYMORPHS, Methods of preparation of Polymorphs, Methods to determine Polymorphism Characterization of Polymorphs, Pharmaceutical Application
Solubility of liquids in liquids, The term miscibility refers to the mutual solubility of the component of liquid - liquid system, Raoult’s Law, Raoult’s law may be mathematically expressed as: Ideal solution, Real solution
Solid State of matter,
Crystalline, Amorphous & Polymorphism Forms,
Classification of solid state of matter On the basis of Internal Structure,
PHYSICAL PHARMACEUTICS-I,
Habet,
B.Pharm,
Here you can find a simple and short note on Pharmaceutical Preformulation studies.
Reference book:
The theory and practice of industrial pharmacy by Lachman and Lieberman.
Announcement about my previous presentations - Thank youAreej Abu Hanieh
ANNOUNCEMENT Thank you for all of you, my followers who sent me messages with a lot of love and appreciations, I finally graduated after 6 years of studying in Birzeit University , In doctor of Pharmacy department I hope all of you benefited from all the presentations posted before Thank you a new PharmD GraduatedAreej ^^
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
2. Binding Forces Between Molecules
Solids and the Crystalline State
Phase Equilibria and the Phase Rule
States of Matter
3. Objectives of the lecture
After completion of this chapter, the students should be able to:
Describe the solid state , crystallinity, solvates and polymorphism
Understand phase equilibria and phase transitions between the three
main states of matter
Understand the phase rule and its application to different systems
containing multiple components.
4. Gases are compressible fluids. Their molecules are widely separated.
Liquids are relatively incompressible fluids. Their molecules are more tightly packed.
Solids are nearly incompressible and rigid. Their molecules or ions are in close contact
and do not move.
Comparison of Gases, Liquids and Solids
In order for molecules to exist in aggregates in gases, liquids
and solids Intermolecular forces must exist
5.
6. As two atoms or molecules are brought closer
together, the opposite charges and binding
forces in the two molecules are closer
together than the similar charges and forces,
causing the molecules to attract one another.
The negatively charged electron clouds of
molecules largely govern the balance
(equilibrium) forces between the two
molecules
Repulsive and Attractive Forces
7. Ideal Gas Equation
Boyle’s law: P a (at constant n and T)
1
V
Charles’ law: V a T (at constant n and P)
Avogadro’s law: V a n (at constant P and T)
P1V1
T1
=
P2V2
T2
PV = nRT
R is the gas
constant
8. The conditions 0 0C and 1 atm are called standard temperature and
pressure (STP).
Experiments show that at STP, 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.414
L.
PV = nRT
Gaseous state
R =
PV
nT
=
(1 atm)(22.414L)
(1 mol)(273.15 K)
R = 0.082057 L • atm / (mol • K)
9. 9
What is the volume (in liters) occupied by 49.8 g of HCl at STP?
PV = nRT
V =
nRT
P
T = 0 0C = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
n = 49.8 g x
1 mol HCl
36.45 g HCl
= 1.37 mol
V =
1 atm
1.37 mol x 0.0821 x 273.15 KL•atm
mol•K
V = 30.7 L
Gaseous state
1 atm ≈ 760.001 mm-Hg
11. The critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature above which the gas cannot be
made to liquefy, OR is the temperature above which the liquid cannot longer exist
The critical pressure (Pc) is the minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its
critical temperature.
critical temperature (Tc) of water is 374°C, or 647 K, and its critical pressure is
218 atm,
Liquefaction of Gases
12.
13. SOLIDS & CRYSTALLINE STATE
Pharmaceutical Drugs: more than 80% are solid formulations
14. A crystalline solid possesses rigid and long-range order.
In a crystalline solid, atoms, molecules or ions occupy specific
(predictable) positions.
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement
and long-range molecular order.
Solids and the crystalline state
16. A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid.
lattice
point
Unit Cell Unit cells in 3 dimensions
At lattice points:
• Atoms
• Molecules
• Ions
18. The various crystal forms are divide to basic 7 unit according to its symmetry
NaCl urea
iodine
sucrose Boric acid
Crystal forms
iodoform
Be3Al2(SiO3)6
19. CsCl ZnS CaF2
Ionic Crystals
• Lattice points occupied by cations and anions
• Held together by electrostatic attraction
• Hard, brittle, high melting point
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity
Types of Crystals
21. Cross Section of a Metallic Crystal
nucleus &
inner shell e-
mobile “sea”
of e-
Metallic Crystals
• Lattice points occupied by metal atoms
• Held together by metallic bonds
• Soft to hard, low to high melting point
• Good conductors of heat and electricity
22. Some elemental substance such as C
and S ,may exist in more than one
crystalline form and are said to be
allotropic, which is a special case of
polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability of a
substance to exist in more than one
crystal structure
Polymorphism
23. Polymorphism is the ability of a substance to exist in more than one
crystal structure
Polymorphs: when two crystals have the same chemical composition
but different internal structure (molecular packing –molecular
conformation or / and inter or intra molecular
interactions)modifications or polymorphs or forms
Pseudo polymorphs : different crystal forms have molecules of the
same given substances and also contain molecules of solvent
incorporated into a unique structure (solvates or hydrates (water))
25. Solid State : Polymorphs
Mono-component systems: Polymorphs
Multi-component systems
26.
27. Cocrystal
The simplest definition of a cocrystal is a crystalline structure made
up of two or more components in a definite stoichiometric ratio,
where each component is defined as either an atom, ion, or
molecule.
28. Principle of polymorphism
When the change from one form to another is reversible, it is said to
be enantiotropic.
When the transition takes place in one direction only—for example,
from a metastable to a stable form—the change is said to be
monotropic.
29. Solvates
Pharmaceutical synthesis include purification and crystallization,
residual solvent can be trapped in the lattice.
This result in the formation of cocrystal or solvate.
The presence of residual solvent may affect dramatically the
crystalline structure of the solid depending on the type of inter.
molecular forces that the solvent may have with crystalline solid
30. Melting point
Vapor pressure
Hardness
Optical, electrical magnetic
properties
Color
IR spectra
NMR spectra
Photochemical reactivity
Thermal stability
Filtration and drying characteristics
Dissolution rate
Bioavailability
Physical and chemical stability
Solubility and melting point are very important in pharmaceutical
processes including dissolution and formulation.
Polymorphism
31. AMORPHOUS SOLIDS
Solids that don’t have a definite geometrical shape are known as Amorphous Solids.
1. In these solids particles are randomly arranged in three dimension.
2. They don’t have sharp melting points.
3. Amorphous solids are formed due to sudden cooling of liquid.
4. Amorphous solids melt over a wide range of temperature
Amorphous Solid
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement and long-range
molecular order.
Amorphous substances, as well as cubic crystal, are isotropic, that is, they exhibit
similar properties in all direction.
32. The crystalline from of the antibiotic novobiocin acid is poorly
absorbed and has no activity, where the amorphous form is readily
absorbed and therapeutically active, due to different dissolution rate.
Amorphous or crystalline & therapeutic
activity
33. General crystallization conditions
Solvents –different polarities
Concentration of the solutions (super saturated, saturated, diluted)
Cooling speed (quenching, slow)
Temperature (room or lower than room temperature)
Crystallization
35. Polymorphism and Industry/
Pharmaceutical
Fluoxetine HCl, the
active ingredient in the
antidepressant drug
Prozac.
co crystal which will
have increased solubility
compared to the
crystalline form
36. Celecoxib
CELECOXIB is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
However it was found that the higher bioavailability was shown by the amorphous state
The downfall of the amorphous state was its stability.
This was due to the structural relaxation.
This was enhanced by mixing it with polymers like PVP, which helped in stabilizing the
amorphous system (Piyush Gupta et al. 2004, Piyush Gupta et al. 2005).
A new solid state form was developed by Pharmacia
37. Furosemide
Two forms with significantly differing aqueous solubility and dissolution
rate
Oral bioavailability compromised
Giron lists >20 excipients that display polymorphism, including
– Lactose (anhydrous; also monohydrate)
– Aspartame (anhydrous; hydrate forms)
– Magnesium stearate (can affect lubrication of tablets)
38. Bioavailability
The rate and extent to which the active ingredient or active moiety is
absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of
action.
39.
40.
41. Bioequivalence
The absence of a significant difference in the rate and extent to which
the active ingredient or active moiety in pharmaceutical equivalents
or pharmaceutical alternatives becomes available at the site of drug
action when administered at the same molar dose under similar
conditions in an appropriately designed study.
44. CHLORPROPAMIDE
at least, six polymorphic white or almost white, crystalline
powder. It exhibits polymorphism. Practically insoluble in water
soluble in alcohol freely soluble in acetone and in dichlo-
romethane dissolves in dilute solutions of alkali hydroxides.
Protect from light.
blood-glucose-lowering drug
46. Theobroma oil (cacao butter ) is a polymorphic natural fat.
Theobroma oil can exist in 4 different polymorphic forms of
which only one is Stabile
1. Unstable gamma form melting at 18°C
2. Alpha form melting at 22°C
3. Beta prime form melting at 28°C
4. Stable beta form melting at 34.5°C
This is important in the preparation of theobroma
suppositories.
If the oil is heated to a point where it is completely liquified
(about 35 C), the crystals of the stable polymorph are
destroyed & the mass does not crystallize until it is cooled to
15 C.
The crystals that form are unstable & the suppositories melt
at 24 C.
Theobroma suppositories must be prepared below 33 C.
Polymorphism and Industry/ Pharmaceutical
47. Polymorphism and Industry/ Pharmaceutical
Anhydrates together with salts form the majority of all drug formulations
About a half of all APIs used today are salts
Salts are stable and well soluble in polar solvents (first of all in water), because they contain ionic bond.
There is one more essential advantage of salts – their solubility is a function of pH. Since pH in the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT) vary between 1-7,5
atorvastatin calcium trihydrate
Each tablet contains Atorvastatin Calcium
Trihydrate equivalent to Atorvastatin 20 mg.
50. Phase Equilibrium: A stable phase structure with lowest free-energy (internal
energy) of a system, and also randomness or disorder of the atoms or molecules
(entropy).
Any change in Temperature, Composition, and Pressure causes an increase in free
energy and away from Equilibrium thus forcing a move to another ‘state’
Phase Equilibria & The Phase Rule: Definitions
51. A phase is defined as any homogeneous and physically distinct part of a system which is
separated from other parts of the system by interfaces.
A part of a system is homogeneous if it has identical physical properties and chemical
composition throughout the part.
A phase may be gas, liquid or solid.
A gas or a gaseous mixture is a single phase.
Totally miscible liquids constitute a single phase.
In an immiscible liquid system, each layer is counted as a separate phase.
Every solid constitutes a single phase except when a solid solution is formed.
A solid solution is considered as a single phase.
Each polymorphic form constitutes a separate phase.
Phase Definition
52. 1. Liquid water, pieces of ice and water vapour are present together.
The number of phases is 3 as each form is a separate phase. Ice in the system is a single phase even
if it is present as a number of pieces.
2. Calcium carbonate undergoes thermal decomposition.
The chemical reaction is: CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
Number of phases = 3 : This system consists of 2 solid phases, CaCO3 and CaO and one gaseous
phase, that of CO2.
3. Ammonium chloride undergoes thermal decomposition. The chemical reaction is:
NH4Cl(s) NH3 (g) + HCl (g) Number of phases = 2
This system has two phases, one solid, NH4Cl and one gaseous, a mixture of NH3 and HCl.
4. A solution of NaCl in water Number of phases = 1
• Examples
53. The number of components of a system at equilibrium is the smallest
number of independently varying chemical constituents using which
the composition of each and every phase in the system can be
expressed.
Components
54. Counting the number of components
1. The sulphur system is a one component system. All the phases,
monoclinic, rhombic, liquid and vapour – can be expressed in terms
of the single constituent – sulphur.
2. A mixture of ethanol and water is an example of a two component
system. We need both ethanol and water to express its
composition.
• Examples
55. An example of a system in which a reaction occurs and an equilibrium is established is the
thermal decomposition of solid CaCO3.
In this system, there are three distinct phases:
Solid CaCO3
Solid CaO
Gaseous CO2
Though there are 3 species present, the number of components is only two, because of the
equilibrium:
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Any two of the three constituents may be chosen as the components.
If CaO and CO2 are chosen, then the composition of the phase CaCO3 is expressed as one mole of
component CO2 plus one mole of component CaO.
If, on the other hand, CaCO3 and CO2 were chosen, then the composition of the phase CaO would
be described as one mole of CaCO3 minus one mole of CO2.
56. The degrees of freedom or variance of a system is defined as the
minimum number of variables such as:
temperature
pressure
concentration
which must be fixed in order to define the system completely.
Degrees of freedom (or variance)
F = C P + 2
57. 1. A gaseous mixture of CO2 and N2.
Three variables: pressure, temperature and composition are required to define this system.
This is, hence, a trivariant system.
2. A system having only liquid water has two degrees of freedom or is bivariant. Both
temperature and pressure need to be mentioned in order to define the system.
3. If to the system containing liquid water, pieces of ice are added and this system with 2
phases is allowed to come to equilibrium, then it is an univariant system.
Only one variable, either temperature or pressure need to be specified in order to define
the system.
If the pressure on the system is maintained at 1 atm, then the temperature of the system
gets automatically fixed at 0oC, the normal melting point of ice.
• Examples
58. Phase Equilibria & The Phase Rule
A phase diagram (Equilibrium Phase Diagram) summarizes the
conditions at which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.
OR : It is a “map” of the information about the control of phase
structure of a particular material system.
The relationships between temperature and the compositions and
the quantities of phases present at equilibrium are represented.
59. F = C P + 2The phase rule
The phase rule
J.W. Gibbs formulated the phase rule, which is a general relation
between the variance, F, the number of component, C, and the
number of phases P, at equilibrium , for a system of any
composition:
For a system in equilibrium
F : degree of freedom, the least number of intensive variable that
must be fixed (known) to describe the system completely
60. Phase Rule relation to determine the least number of intensive
variable, that can be changed without changing the equilibrium state
of the system, or, alternately,
The least number required to define the state of the system, which is
called degree of freedom F.
Intensive variable independent variable that do not depend on the
volume or the size, e.g.Temp., pressure
61. Independent chemical species which comprise the system:
These could be: Elements, Ions, Compounds
E.g. Au-Cu system : Components → Au, Cu
Ice-water system : Component → H2O
Al2O3 – Cr2O3 system : Components → Al2O3, Cr2O3
Component the smallest number of constituent by which the composition
of each phase in the system at equilibrium can be expressed in form of
chemical formula or equation
Phase Equilibria & The Phase Rule
Components of a system
62. The number of phases in a system is denoted P
(a)A gas, or a gaseous mixture is a single phase. P=1
(b) For a solid system, an alloy of two metals is a two-phase system (P=2) if the metals
are immiscible, but a single-phase system (P=1) if they are miscible---a homogeneous
mixture of the two substances---is uniform on a molecular scale.
(c) For a liquid system, according to the solubility to decide whether a system consists of
one phase or of two.
For example, a solution of sodium chloride in water is a single phase.
A pair of liquids that are partially miscible or immiscible is a two-phase system(P=2)
Oil in water
63. Degrees of Freedom = What you can control What the system controls
F = C + 2 P
Can control the no. of
components added and P & T
System decided how many
phases to produce given the
conditions
A way of understanding the Gibbs Phase Rule:
The degrees of freedom can be thought of as the difference between what you (can) control and
what the system controls
64. F : degree of freedom, the least number of intensive variable that must be fixed
(known) to describe the system completely
Degree of freedom (or variance) F is the number of variables (T, p, and/or
composition) that can be changed independently without changing the phases of
the system
a) At the triple point:
P = 3 (solid, liquid, and gas)
C= 1 (water)
P + F = C + 2
F = 0 (no degree of freedom)
b) liquid-solid curve
P = 2
2+F = 1 + 2
F= 1
One variable (T or P) can be changed
c) Liquid
P =1
So F =2
Two variables (T and P) can be varied independently
and the system will remains a single phase
65. One-component systems
Phase diagram of water
P(atm)
Critical point
374
1
=100=0O--Triple point
0.006
218
Curve O -C
Sublimation
Deposition
Curve O-A
Vaporization
Condensation
Curve O -B
Melting
Freezing
F = C P + 2
68. Condensed system: System in which the vapor phase is ignored and only
the solid and/or liquid phases are considered.
Two component system
For two component system F can be 3, (3D model is needed), e.g. T, p and
concentration , usually we fix p = 1atm , the vapor phase is neglected, and F
is reduced to 2
For three component system the pressure and temperature are fixed
71. e.g. for point d (24%)
Two component system containing liquid phase
Tie Line : bc line: The line at which the system at
equilibrium will separate into phases of constant
composition, termed ‘conjugate phases’
Lever Rule: a way to calculate the proportions of each
phase present on a phase diagram in a two phase field
(at a given temperature and composition).
72. e.g. for point d (24%)
For every 10 g of liquid system
in equilibrium in point d
7.5 g phase A
2.5 g phase B
Example:
Mixed 24g phenol +76g water , T 50°C,
equilibrium
75 g phase A 25 g phase B
11% phenol 63 % phenol
0.11× 75 g=8.25 g
phenol
0.63× 25 g=15.75 g
phenol
water rich phase
contains water+ phenol(11%)
Phenol rich phase
contains Phenol (63%)+ water
73. The Critical Solution Temperature: CST
Is the maximum temperature at which
the 2-phase region exists (or upper
consolute temperature).
In the case of the phenol-water system,
this is 66.8oC (point h)
All combinations of phenol and water >
CST are completely miscible and yield 1-
phase liquid systems.
74. Systems Showing a Decrease in Miscibility with
Rise in Temperature
A few mixtures, exhibit a lower critical
solution temperature (low CST), e.g.
triethylamine plus water. The miscibility
with in temperature.
75. Systems Showing Upper and Lower CSTs
The miscibility with temp.
a certain temperature miscibility
starts to again with further in
temperature.
Closed-phase diagram, i.e.
nicotine-water system.
76. A :salol B: thymol
53%
Two component system containing solid
and liquid phase (Eutectic Mixtures)
78. EMLA® (lidocaine 2.5% and prilocaine 2.5%) Cream
EMLA Cream (lidocaine 2.5% and prilocaine 2.5%) is an emulsion in which the oil
phase is a eutectic mixture of lidocaine and prilocaine in a ratio of 1:1 by weight.
This eutectic mixture has a melting point below room temperature and therefore
both local anesthetics exist as a liquid oil rather than as crystals
Eutectic mixture : Pharmaceutical Application
81. 1. Binding Forces Between Molecules
2. Repulsive and Attractive Forces
3. The Gaseous State
The Ideal Gas Law
Liquefaction of Gases
Aerosols
4. Solids and the Crystalline State
Crystalline Solids
Polymorphism
Solvates
Amorphous Solids
5. Phase Equilibria and the Phase Rule
Phase Rule
Systems Containing One Component
Condensed System
Two-Component Systems Containing Liquid Phases
Two-Component Systems Containing Solid and Liquid Phases : Eutectic Mixtures
Rules Relating to Triangular Diagrams
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