This document discusses the three common states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids. It provides details on the properties and behaviors of each state. Gases have widely separated molecules and are compressible. Liquids have more tightly packed molecules and are relatively incompressible. Solids have molecules in close contact that do not move and are nearly incompressible. The document then focuses more on properties of solids, including crystalline and amorphous structures. It also discusses phase equilibria, liquid crystals, and properties of gases including gas laws and the ideal gas equation.
This document discusses various physicochemical properties of drug molecules that are important for product development, including refractive index, optical rotation, dielectric constant, dipole moment, and dissociation constant. It provides definitions and measurement techniques for each property, as well as their applications in areas like product formulation, storage conditions, identification of substances, and understanding acid-base equilibria. Measurement of these properties allows for characterization of drug molecules and optimization of drug products.
The document discusses suspensions, which are two-phase systems composed of solid particles dispersed in a liquid. Suspensions can be classified based on particle size as molecular, colloidal, or coarse dispersions. They can also be classified as flocculated or deflocculated based on how the particles interact. Factors like particle size, viscosity, density, and interfacial properties affect suspension stability. Common methods for producing suspensions include precipitation, dispersion, and controlled flocculation. The stability of suspensions is evaluated through sedimentation volume, degree of flocculation, and zeta potential measurements. Equipment like colloid mills and ultrasonic devices can be used to formulate suspensions.
1. The document discusses colloidal dispersions, which are systems where particles between 1 nm and 1000 nm are dispersed uniformly throughout a dispersion medium.
2. Colloidal systems are classified based on particle size into molecular dispersions, colloidal dispersions, and coarse dispersions. They are also classified based on particle-medium interactions into lyophilic, lyophobic, and association colloids.
3. The key properties of colloidal systems discussed are electrical properties (surface charge, zeta potential, electrophoresis), optical properties (Tyndall effect, turbidity), and kinetic properties (Brownian motion, diffusion, viscosity).
Size exclusion chromatography separates molecules based on their size or hydrodynamic radius. It uses a column packed with porous beads that allow smaller molecules to enter the pores while restricting the entry of larger molecules. This results in larger molecules being eluted first from the column followed by smaller molecules. It is commonly used to determine the molecular weight distribution of polymers and to purify proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.
Column chromatography is a separation technique that uses a column packed with a stationary phase to separate mixtures based on how compounds partition between the stationary and mobile phases. Martin and Synge introduced partition column chromatography in 1941 using differences in how compounds partition between two liquid phases. Column chromatography can use a solid stationary phase for adsorption chromatography or a liquid stationary phase for partition chromatography. The technique works by selectively retaining compounds based on their interaction with and attraction to the stationary phase.
The document discusses various physical properties of drug molecules, including additive, colligative, and constitutive properties. It describes several methods for adjusting the tonicity of drug solutions, including the sodium chloride equivalent method and White-Vincent method. The document also covers topics like dipole moment, dielectric constant, refractive index, molar refraction, and the use of Abbe's refractometer.
Polymorphism refers to a solid material existing in two or more crystalline forms with different arrangements in the crystal lattice. Over 50% of active pharmaceutical ingredients have more than one polymorphic form, which can exhibit different properties like solubility, dissolution rate, and stability. Methods to identify polymorphs include x-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermal microscopy. The choice of polymorph is important for drug formulations, as the metastable form may have better bioavailability but convert to the stable form, impacting suspension stability or drug absorption. Case studies show certain polymorphs can be medically inactive or cause production issues if they convert dominant forms.
This document provides an overview of column chromatography, including its history, definition, principle, types, experimental technique, requirements, applications, advantages, and disadvantages. Column chromatography was developed in 1901 by Russian botanist Mikhail Tsvet as a method to separate plant pigments by passing an organic solution through an adsorptive material in a glass column, resulting in discrete colored bands. It involves using a column packed with a stationary phase and flowing a liquid mobile phase through to separate components of a mixture based on differential adsorption between the phases.
This document discusses various physicochemical properties of drug molecules that are important for product development, including refractive index, optical rotation, dielectric constant, dipole moment, and dissociation constant. It provides definitions and measurement techniques for each property, as well as their applications in areas like product formulation, storage conditions, identification of substances, and understanding acid-base equilibria. Measurement of these properties allows for characterization of drug molecules and optimization of drug products.
The document discusses suspensions, which are two-phase systems composed of solid particles dispersed in a liquid. Suspensions can be classified based on particle size as molecular, colloidal, or coarse dispersions. They can also be classified as flocculated or deflocculated based on how the particles interact. Factors like particle size, viscosity, density, and interfacial properties affect suspension stability. Common methods for producing suspensions include precipitation, dispersion, and controlled flocculation. The stability of suspensions is evaluated through sedimentation volume, degree of flocculation, and zeta potential measurements. Equipment like colloid mills and ultrasonic devices can be used to formulate suspensions.
1. The document discusses colloidal dispersions, which are systems where particles between 1 nm and 1000 nm are dispersed uniformly throughout a dispersion medium.
2. Colloidal systems are classified based on particle size into molecular dispersions, colloidal dispersions, and coarse dispersions. They are also classified based on particle-medium interactions into lyophilic, lyophobic, and association colloids.
3. The key properties of colloidal systems discussed are electrical properties (surface charge, zeta potential, electrophoresis), optical properties (Tyndall effect, turbidity), and kinetic properties (Brownian motion, diffusion, viscosity).
Size exclusion chromatography separates molecules based on their size or hydrodynamic radius. It uses a column packed with porous beads that allow smaller molecules to enter the pores while restricting the entry of larger molecules. This results in larger molecules being eluted first from the column followed by smaller molecules. It is commonly used to determine the molecular weight distribution of polymers and to purify proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.
Column chromatography is a separation technique that uses a column packed with a stationary phase to separate mixtures based on how compounds partition between the stationary and mobile phases. Martin and Synge introduced partition column chromatography in 1941 using differences in how compounds partition between two liquid phases. Column chromatography can use a solid stationary phase for adsorption chromatography or a liquid stationary phase for partition chromatography. The technique works by selectively retaining compounds based on their interaction with and attraction to the stationary phase.
The document discusses various physical properties of drug molecules, including additive, colligative, and constitutive properties. It describes several methods for adjusting the tonicity of drug solutions, including the sodium chloride equivalent method and White-Vincent method. The document also covers topics like dipole moment, dielectric constant, refractive index, molar refraction, and the use of Abbe's refractometer.
Polymorphism refers to a solid material existing in two or more crystalline forms with different arrangements in the crystal lattice. Over 50% of active pharmaceutical ingredients have more than one polymorphic form, which can exhibit different properties like solubility, dissolution rate, and stability. Methods to identify polymorphs include x-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, and thermal microscopy. The choice of polymorph is important for drug formulations, as the metastable form may have better bioavailability but convert to the stable form, impacting suspension stability or drug absorption. Case studies show certain polymorphs can be medically inactive or cause production issues if they convert dominant forms.
This document provides an overview of column chromatography, including its history, definition, principle, types, experimental technique, requirements, applications, advantages, and disadvantages. Column chromatography was developed in 1901 by Russian botanist Mikhail Tsvet as a method to separate plant pigments by passing an organic solution through an adsorptive material in a glass column, resulting in discrete colored bands. It involves using a column packed with a stationary phase and flowing a liquid mobile phase through to separate components of a mixture based on differential adsorption between the phases.
The document discusses key concepts and steps in preformulation testing. Preformulation involves investigating the physical and chemical properties of a drug substance alone and when combined with excipients. This generates useful information for formulating stable and safe dosage forms with good bioavailability. Some important properties discussed include solubility, particle size and shape, melting point, thermal analysis profile, hygroscopicity, and polymorphism potential. Determining these properties of a new drug substance is an important first step before developing drug formulations.
This document discusses factors that affect drug absorption in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It covers pharmaceutical factors like a drug's solubility, particle size, salt form, and polymorphism/amorphism, which can impact dissolution rate and absorption. It also discusses patient-related factors like age, GI pH, transit time, and disease status. Key pharmaceutical factors that influence drug absorption are solubility, dissolution rate, and factors that impact effective surface area like particle size.
This document discusses various solubilization techniques for improving the solubility of poorly soluble drugs, including physical and chemical modifications. Under physical modifications, it covers crystal modification techniques like polymorphism and salt formation. It also discusses particle size reduction methods like micronization, nanonization, and production of nanosuspensions. Other techniques covered are drug dispersion in carriers through solid solutions, eutectic mixtures and solid dispersions. It also discusses solubilization using surfactants, complexation, and chemical modifications. The techniques discussed aim to improve drug dissolution rates and oral absorption of class II drugs limited by solubility.
This document discusses preformulation studies for parenteral products. Preformulation testing provides important information for developing dosage forms and involves determining the physical and chemical properties of drug molecules. Key aspects of preformulation studies discussed include bulk characterization of properties like crystallinity and polymorphism. Solubility analysis looks at aqueous solubility, drug ionization, and partition coefficient. Stability studies evaluate stability in formulations, of solutions, and in the solid state under various temperature and humidity conditions. Additional analytical techniques discussed that are useful in preformulation include spectroscopy, microscopy, and chromatography. Thorough preformulation work lays the foundation for developing efficacious and stable dosage forms.
Liquid liquid extraction and flocculationvikash_94
Liquid-liquid extraction and flocculation are separation processes discussed in the document. Liquid-liquid extraction involves using two immiscible liquids to separate components of a mixture based on their relative solubilities in each liquid. Factors like distribution coefficient, selectivity, and physical properties of solvents are considered when choosing extraction solvents. Common equipment used includes mixer-settlers, columns, and centrifuges. Applications include removing products/pollutants from aqueous streams and washing polar compounds from organics. Flocculation involves using chemicals to induce clumping/aggregation of suspended particles in liquids to aid separation.
This document discusses various parameters used to characterize drug release from pharmaceutical formulations. It describes diffusion parameters defined by Higuchi's equation and plots. Dissolution parameters like the effects of agitation, pH, temperature, and medium properties are outlined. Pharmacokinetic parameters including Cmax, Tmax, and AUC are defined. The Heckel equation is presented as a method to analyze powder compaction. Similarity factors f1 and f2 are introduced to compare dissolution profiles. The Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas models for drug release are presented.
This document provides information about High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). It defines HPLC as a technique that uses pumps to pass a pressurized liquid mobile phase through a column packed with adsorbent particles. This allows the separation of a sample mixture as its components interact differently with the stationary phase. The document outlines the basic components of an HPLC system including the sample injector, column, detector, and data analysis devices. It also describes various parameters that affect the separation like retention time and factors, temperature control, and types of columns and detectors commonly used.
This document discusses dissolution, which refers to the process by which a solid drug product dissolves into solution. It describes the film theory of dissolution, where a saturated film forms at the solid-liquid interface and drug diffusion through this film is the rate-determining step. Factors that affect dissolution are also outlined, including drug properties like solubility and particle size, as well as dosage form properties and test parameters. Equations for describing dissolution kinetics like the Noyes-Whitney and Hixson-Crowell cube root models are provided. Intrinsic dissolution rate, which measures dissolution under standardized conditions, is also defined.
This document summarizes adsorption chromatography, a method used to separate mixtures. It was developed by American scientist D.T. Day and later botanist M.S. Tswett used adsorption columns to investigate plant pigments. The principle is that components are separated based on how strongly they adsorb to the column material, with the most strongly adsorbed at the top and least at the bottom. Common adsorbents discussed include silica gel, alumina, fuller's earth, charcoal, and polystyrene beads. The column is prepared either through dry packing or wet packing of the adsorbent material. Adsorption chromatography is used to separate mixtures such as polycyclic aromatic
Various techniques for study of Crystal PropertiesCooling Crystal
The document discusses various techniques used to characterize crystals and study their properties, including optical microscopy, etching, X-ray diffraction, FT-IR spectroscopy, thermal analysis, UV-visible spectroscopy, emission spectrometry, microhardness measurements, and vibrating sample magnetometry. It also summarizes a research paper on the formulation and evaluation of co-crystals of the poorly water soluble drug darunavir with succinic acid using different analytical techniques. The prepared co-crystals showed improved solubility, dissolution rate, flowability and stability compared to the pure drug.
This document discusses solubility of drugs from the perspectives of a medicinal chemist and pharmaceutical scientist. From the medicinal chemist perspective, it discusses Lipinski's rule of five for predicting solubility and permeability. It also discusses methods for calculating absorption parameters and predicting aqueous solubility, such as the Moriguchi method for calculating logP. From the pharmaceutical scientist perspective, it outlines various techniques for enhancing drug solubility, including particle size reduction through micronization or nanosuspension, modifying crystal habit through polymorphs or complexes, and chemical modifications through prodrugs or buffer systems. Overall, the document provides an overview of key considerations and approaches for optimizing drug solubility from different scientific viewpoints.
The document provides an overview of pre-formulation, which involves determining the physicochemical properties of a drug substance prior to developing a dosage form. It discusses the goals of pre-formulation to formulate an efficacious dosage form with good bioavailability. The protocol involves characterizing the physical, chemical, solubility, stability and compatibility properties of the drug. Key aspects covered include polymorphism, hygroscopicity, particle size, solubility, dissolution, stability in solution and solid state, and compatibility with excipients. The information guides subsequent formulation development.
The document discusses various techniques to improve the solubility of poorly soluble drugs, including salt formation, co-solvency, and particle size reduction. It focuses on using salt formation between flurbiprofen and tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane to increase solubility. Analytical techniques like DSC, TGA, HPLC, and UV were used to characterize the flurbiprofen-tris salt and showed improved solubility over flurbiprofen alone. The conclusion states that increasing water solubility of insoluble drugs is important for developing effective dosage forms and delivering drugs to the absorption site.
Liquid liquid extraction useful for B. Pharmacy students. solvent extraction is one of the separation technique and it is the most common method adopted in the field of analysis
This document provides an overview of preformulation studies, which characterize the physical and chemical properties of new drug molecules to aid in the development of safe, effective, and stable dosage forms. Some key points covered include:
- Preformulation studies give direction for dosage form selection, excipient choice, composition, and process development.
- Important physicochemical properties to determine include solubility, partition coefficient, pKa, stability, and interactions with excipients.
- Methods are described for evaluating properties like solubility, dissolution, oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymorphism which can impact stability and bioavailability.
- Understanding these properties aids in developing robust formulations and setting appropriate storage conditions for drug products
Here you can find a simple and short note on Pharmaceutical Preformulation studies.
Reference book:
The theory and practice of industrial pharmacy by Lachman and Lieberman.
This document summarizes research on the preparation and characterization of spherical agglomerates of the drug Lansoprazole. Spherical crystals of Lansoprazole were prepared using different methods including emulsion solvent diffusion and neutralization. The spherical crystals were characterized using techniques like PXRD, DSC, SEM, FTIR, and in vitro drug release studies. Tablets were also prepared from the spherical crystal agglomerates and were evaluated for properties like hardness, friability, disintegration time and drug release. The spherical crystal agglomerates showed improved solubility, flowability and compactability compared to the raw drug crystals.
The document discusses states of matter and pharmaceutical materials. It begins by comparing gases, liquids, and solids, noting that solids have molecules in close contact that do not move. It then discusses intermolecular forces, ideal gas laws, liquefaction of gases, and the solid state including crystals, unit cells, polymorphism, and amorphous solids. It notes that polymorphism can impact properties like solubility, melting point, and bioavailability which are important for pharmaceutical processes and drug performance.
The document discusses key concepts and steps in preformulation testing. Preformulation involves investigating the physical and chemical properties of a drug substance alone and when combined with excipients. This generates useful information for formulating stable and safe dosage forms with good bioavailability. Some important properties discussed include solubility, particle size and shape, melting point, thermal analysis profile, hygroscopicity, and polymorphism potential. Determining these properties of a new drug substance is an important first step before developing drug formulations.
This document discusses factors that affect drug absorption in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It covers pharmaceutical factors like a drug's solubility, particle size, salt form, and polymorphism/amorphism, which can impact dissolution rate and absorption. It also discusses patient-related factors like age, GI pH, transit time, and disease status. Key pharmaceutical factors that influence drug absorption are solubility, dissolution rate, and factors that impact effective surface area like particle size.
This document discusses various solubilization techniques for improving the solubility of poorly soluble drugs, including physical and chemical modifications. Under physical modifications, it covers crystal modification techniques like polymorphism and salt formation. It also discusses particle size reduction methods like micronization, nanonization, and production of nanosuspensions. Other techniques covered are drug dispersion in carriers through solid solutions, eutectic mixtures and solid dispersions. It also discusses solubilization using surfactants, complexation, and chemical modifications. The techniques discussed aim to improve drug dissolution rates and oral absorption of class II drugs limited by solubility.
This document discusses preformulation studies for parenteral products. Preformulation testing provides important information for developing dosage forms and involves determining the physical and chemical properties of drug molecules. Key aspects of preformulation studies discussed include bulk characterization of properties like crystallinity and polymorphism. Solubility analysis looks at aqueous solubility, drug ionization, and partition coefficient. Stability studies evaluate stability in formulations, of solutions, and in the solid state under various temperature and humidity conditions. Additional analytical techniques discussed that are useful in preformulation include spectroscopy, microscopy, and chromatography. Thorough preformulation work lays the foundation for developing efficacious and stable dosage forms.
Liquid liquid extraction and flocculationvikash_94
Liquid-liquid extraction and flocculation are separation processes discussed in the document. Liquid-liquid extraction involves using two immiscible liquids to separate components of a mixture based on their relative solubilities in each liquid. Factors like distribution coefficient, selectivity, and physical properties of solvents are considered when choosing extraction solvents. Common equipment used includes mixer-settlers, columns, and centrifuges. Applications include removing products/pollutants from aqueous streams and washing polar compounds from organics. Flocculation involves using chemicals to induce clumping/aggregation of suspended particles in liquids to aid separation.
This document discusses various parameters used to characterize drug release from pharmaceutical formulations. It describes diffusion parameters defined by Higuchi's equation and plots. Dissolution parameters like the effects of agitation, pH, temperature, and medium properties are outlined. Pharmacokinetic parameters including Cmax, Tmax, and AUC are defined. The Heckel equation is presented as a method to analyze powder compaction. Similarity factors f1 and f2 are introduced to compare dissolution profiles. The Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas models for drug release are presented.
This document provides information about High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). It defines HPLC as a technique that uses pumps to pass a pressurized liquid mobile phase through a column packed with adsorbent particles. This allows the separation of a sample mixture as its components interact differently with the stationary phase. The document outlines the basic components of an HPLC system including the sample injector, column, detector, and data analysis devices. It also describes various parameters that affect the separation like retention time and factors, temperature control, and types of columns and detectors commonly used.
This document discusses dissolution, which refers to the process by which a solid drug product dissolves into solution. It describes the film theory of dissolution, where a saturated film forms at the solid-liquid interface and drug diffusion through this film is the rate-determining step. Factors that affect dissolution are also outlined, including drug properties like solubility and particle size, as well as dosage form properties and test parameters. Equations for describing dissolution kinetics like the Noyes-Whitney and Hixson-Crowell cube root models are provided. Intrinsic dissolution rate, which measures dissolution under standardized conditions, is also defined.
This document summarizes adsorption chromatography, a method used to separate mixtures. It was developed by American scientist D.T. Day and later botanist M.S. Tswett used adsorption columns to investigate plant pigments. The principle is that components are separated based on how strongly they adsorb to the column material, with the most strongly adsorbed at the top and least at the bottom. Common adsorbents discussed include silica gel, alumina, fuller's earth, charcoal, and polystyrene beads. The column is prepared either through dry packing or wet packing of the adsorbent material. Adsorption chromatography is used to separate mixtures such as polycyclic aromatic
Various techniques for study of Crystal PropertiesCooling Crystal
The document discusses various techniques used to characterize crystals and study their properties, including optical microscopy, etching, X-ray diffraction, FT-IR spectroscopy, thermal analysis, UV-visible spectroscopy, emission spectrometry, microhardness measurements, and vibrating sample magnetometry. It also summarizes a research paper on the formulation and evaluation of co-crystals of the poorly water soluble drug darunavir with succinic acid using different analytical techniques. The prepared co-crystals showed improved solubility, dissolution rate, flowability and stability compared to the pure drug.
This document discusses solubility of drugs from the perspectives of a medicinal chemist and pharmaceutical scientist. From the medicinal chemist perspective, it discusses Lipinski's rule of five for predicting solubility and permeability. It also discusses methods for calculating absorption parameters and predicting aqueous solubility, such as the Moriguchi method for calculating logP. From the pharmaceutical scientist perspective, it outlines various techniques for enhancing drug solubility, including particle size reduction through micronization or nanosuspension, modifying crystal habit through polymorphs or complexes, and chemical modifications through prodrugs or buffer systems. Overall, the document provides an overview of key considerations and approaches for optimizing drug solubility from different scientific viewpoints.
The document provides an overview of pre-formulation, which involves determining the physicochemical properties of a drug substance prior to developing a dosage form. It discusses the goals of pre-formulation to formulate an efficacious dosage form with good bioavailability. The protocol involves characterizing the physical, chemical, solubility, stability and compatibility properties of the drug. Key aspects covered include polymorphism, hygroscopicity, particle size, solubility, dissolution, stability in solution and solid state, and compatibility with excipients. The information guides subsequent formulation development.
The document discusses various techniques to improve the solubility of poorly soluble drugs, including salt formation, co-solvency, and particle size reduction. It focuses on using salt formation between flurbiprofen and tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane to increase solubility. Analytical techniques like DSC, TGA, HPLC, and UV were used to characterize the flurbiprofen-tris salt and showed improved solubility over flurbiprofen alone. The conclusion states that increasing water solubility of insoluble drugs is important for developing effective dosage forms and delivering drugs to the absorption site.
Liquid liquid extraction useful for B. Pharmacy students. solvent extraction is one of the separation technique and it is the most common method adopted in the field of analysis
This document provides an overview of preformulation studies, which characterize the physical and chemical properties of new drug molecules to aid in the development of safe, effective, and stable dosage forms. Some key points covered include:
- Preformulation studies give direction for dosage form selection, excipient choice, composition, and process development.
- Important physicochemical properties to determine include solubility, partition coefficient, pKa, stability, and interactions with excipients.
- Methods are described for evaluating properties like solubility, dissolution, oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymorphism which can impact stability and bioavailability.
- Understanding these properties aids in developing robust formulations and setting appropriate storage conditions for drug products
Here you can find a simple and short note on Pharmaceutical Preformulation studies.
Reference book:
The theory and practice of industrial pharmacy by Lachman and Lieberman.
This document summarizes research on the preparation and characterization of spherical agglomerates of the drug Lansoprazole. Spherical crystals of Lansoprazole were prepared using different methods including emulsion solvent diffusion and neutralization. The spherical crystals were characterized using techniques like PXRD, DSC, SEM, FTIR, and in vitro drug release studies. Tablets were also prepared from the spherical crystal agglomerates and were evaluated for properties like hardness, friability, disintegration time and drug release. The spherical crystal agglomerates showed improved solubility, flowability and compactability compared to the raw drug crystals.
The document discusses states of matter and pharmaceutical materials. It begins by comparing gases, liquids, and solids, noting that solids have molecules in close contact that do not move. It then discusses intermolecular forces, ideal gas laws, liquefaction of gases, and the solid state including crystals, unit cells, polymorphism, and amorphous solids. It notes that polymorphism can impact properties like solubility, melting point, and bioavailability which are important for pharmaceutical processes and drug performance.
This document provides an overview of states of matter and polymorphism. It discusses the three main states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids - and how their molecular arrangements differ. Solids can exist in crystalline or amorphous forms, with crystalline solids possessing long-range molecular order. Polymorphism, where a substance can exist in multiple crystal structures, is described. The importance of polymorphism in pharmaceutical industry is highlighted, as different solid forms can impact properties like solubility, dissolution rate, and bioavailability. Specific drug examples like carbamazepine and ritonavir and their polymorphic forms are mentioned.
This document discusses the three common states of matter - solids, liquids, and gases. It explains that the state depends on factors like intermolecular forces and temperature. Gases have the weakest intermolecular forces. The behavior of gases is described by the ideal gas law and Vander Waals equation. Liquids are intermediate between solids and gases. Phase changes between states are also discussed, along with concepts like vapor pressure, boiling point, and melting point. Polymorphism and liquid crystals are mentioned as examples of unusual solid forms.
States of Matter and properties of matter: State of matter, changes in the state of matter, latent heats, vapour pressure, sublimation critical point, eutectic mixtures, gases, aerosols – inhalers, relative humidity, liquid complexes, liquid crystals, glassy states, solid- crystalline, amorphous & polymorphism.
Physicochemical properties of drug molecules: Refractive index, optical rotation, dielectric constant, dipole moment, dissociation constant, determinations and applications
States of Matter and properties of matter: State of matter, changes in the state of matter, latent heats, vapour pressure, sublimation critical point, eutectic mixtures, gases, aerosols – inhalers, relative humidity, liquid complexes, liquid crystals, glassy states, solid- crystalline, amorphous & polymorphism.
Physicochemical properties of drug molecules: Refractive index, optical rotation, dielectric constant, dipole moment, dissociation constant, determinations and applications
1- States of matter & phase equilibria - part 1 (Physical Pharmacy)Rawa M. Ahmed
This document summarizes key concepts from a lecture on physical pharmacy and states of matter. It discusses the different types of intermolecular and intramolecular bonding forces that cause molecules to aggregate into gases, liquids, and solids. It then examines the primary states of matter - gases, liquids, and crystalline solids - and explores concepts such as melting point, heat of fusion, polymorphism, and amorphous solids for solids, and boiling point, heat of vaporization, and the ideal gas law for gases. Other topics summarized include liquefaction of gases, aerosols, liquid crystals, and supercritical fluids.
The document discusses different types of solids including crystalline solids, amorphous solids, and their properties. Crystalline solids have a defined structure and melting point while amorphous solids lack a defined structure. The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it transitions to a liquid and is dependent on the strength of intermolecular forces, with stronger forces leading to higher melting points. Thermal analysis techniques can be used to characterize materials based on physical and chemical changes like melting point. Polymorphism, which is the ability to exist in multiple crystal structures, is important for pharmaceuticals as different polymorphs can have different properties.
Liquid crystals are an intermediate phase of matter that exhibit properties of both liquids and crystals. They form due to certain ordering of molecules that is dependent on temperature. There are two main types - thermotropic liquid crystals, whose order depends on temperature alone, and lyotropic liquid crystals, whose order depends on both temperature and concentration in a solvent. Thermotropic crystals can form nematic, smectic or cholesteric phases with varying degrees of positional and orientational ordering. Liquid crystals find applications in LCD displays, thermometers, and battery charge indicators due to their sensitivity to temperature, electric fields, and other stimuli.
The document discusses four important techniques used in organic chemistry: recrystallization, distillation, sublimation, and chromatography. Recrystallization involves dissolving an impure solid in a hot solvent and slowly cooling the solution to form purer crystals. Distillation separates liquids with different boiling points. Sublimation transitions a substance directly from solid to gas without an intermediate liquid phase. Chromatography separates mixtures by differential absorption of compounds onto a stationary phase as they are carried through by a mobile phase.
Raoult's law describes the behavior of ideal solutions. It states that the vapor pressure of a solution is proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution. The vapor pressure of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent due to the presence of nonvolatile solute particles. This lowering of vapor pressure leads to boiling point elevation and freezing point depression in solutions, as described by the colligative properties. The quantitative relationships for boiling point elevation and freezing point depression involve the molal concentration of the solute.
This document discusses gravimetric analysis, which is a quantitative analytical technique where the amount of analyte is determined by measuring its mass. There are several types of gravimetric methods including precipitation gravimetry, where the analyte is separated as a precipitate and weighed. An ideal precipitate would be easily filtered, insoluble, and of known composition when dried or ignited. The document outlines the general procedure for precipitation gravimetry and factors that influence precipitate formation and particle size such as supersaturation and coagulation of colloids.
This document provides information on basic chemistry concepts including nitrogen, heat, solutions, acids and bases, organic chemistry, biochemistry, and techniques for purifying organic compounds. Key points covered include properties of nitrogen gas, definitions of heat and temperature, how to calculate solution concentrations, characteristics of acids and bases, classes of organic molecules and reactions, main types of biomolecules, and methods for recrystallization and distillation. Multiple choice and open-ended questions are included for practice applying the concepts.
This document discusses key concepts about the four states of matter - solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. It explains their characteristics based on how tightly or loosely packed the particles are and how much energy they possess. Phase changes like melting, freezing, vaporization, and condensation are defined. The effects of heat, pressure, and dissolving substances on boiling points and freezing points are summarized. In particular, it's noted that pressure and dissolving substances raise boiling points and lower freezing points, while heat raises both boiling and freezing points.
This document discusses solubility of drugs, including definitions, expressions, mechanisms of solute-solvent interactions, and factors that influence solubility. It defines solubility and saturated solutions, and discusses solubility expressions like g/ml, molarity, and percentage. It explains solvent-solute interactions like hydrogen bonding, polar vs non-polar solvents, solvation, and association. Finally, it discusses factors like temperature, nature of solvent, particle size, crystal structure, molecular structure, pH, common ion effect, and diffusion principles in biological systems.
For more such informative content, go to https://scifitechify.blogspot.com/. Surface chemistry presentation will provide lots of valuable information about its day-to-day applications in real life. It explains concepts of adsorption, absorption, activation energy, Arrhenius equation, colloids, solutions, chemical processes etc.
It also elaborates on specific chemical reactions like peptisation reaction.
Solubility of drugs: Solubility expressions, mechanisms of solute solvent interactions, ideal solubility parameters, solvation & association, quantitative approach to the factors
influencing solubility of drugs, diffusion principles in biological systems. Solubility
of gas in liquids, solubility of liquids in liquids, (Binary solutions, ideal solutions)
Raoult’s law, real solutions. Partially miscible liquids, Critical solution temperature . Distribution law, its limitations and applications
This document discusses various parameters used to characterize drug release from pharmaceutical formulations, including diffusion parameters described by Higuchi's equation, dissolution parameters like the effects of agitation and pH, and pharmacokinetic parameters like Cmax, Tmax, and AUC. It also covers models like the Heckel equation that can be applied to understand powder compaction and the Korsmeyer-Peppas model for characterizing drug release mechanisms.
This document discusses optimization techniques used in pharmaceutical development. It defines optimization as choosing the best alternative from available options to make something as perfect or effective as possible. It discusses various optimization parameters like problem type (constrained vs unconstrained), variables (independent vs dependent), and methods like response surface methodology, factorial designs, evolutionary operations, and search methods. Response surface methodology uses statistical experimental designs like central composite designs to determine the relationship between independent and dependent variables and find the optimum formulation.
The document discusses ethics in computing in pharmaceutical research and computer use in market analysis. It addresses key ethical issues like privacy, liability, ownership, and power related to use of computers. It also discusses relevant codes of conduct for computer use and how computers can be used in market analysis to facilitate collection and dissemination of market information. A survey was conducted of industry participants to assess potential acceptance of computer-aided marketing systems. The advisory committee concluded such a system should be developed to complement existing marketing practices.
Quality by Design (QbD) is a systematic approach to pharmaceutical development that begins with predefined objectives and emphasizes product and process understanding based on sound science and quality risk management. Key aspects of QbD include establishing a Quality Target Product Profile (QTPP) that identifies critical quality attributes (CQAs), understanding critical material attributes (CMAs) and critical process parameters (CPPs), and implementing a control strategy for CQAs and CPPs. The ICH Q8 guideline introduced QbD, and it has been further developed through guidelines like ICH Q9 and Q10. Examples show how QbD has been applied scientifically in different pharmaceutical development and manufacturing processes.
This document discusses the application of computer-aided techniques in developing pharmaceutical emulsions and microemulsions. It provides several examples of how experimental design and artificial neural networks have been used to optimize emulsion formulations and processing parameters. Specifically, researchers have used factorial design, response surface methodology, and artificial neural networks to determine the ideal concentrations of formulation components, processing conditions, and emulsifier mixtures to produce emulsions with desirable properties like stability, viscosity, and particle size. These computer-aided approaches allow for simultaneous optimization of multiple formulation parameters and provide a way to shorten product development time compared to traditional trial-and-error methods.
This document provides an overview of parenterals (injectable drugs). It discusses:
- Definitions and routes of administration including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, and others
- Formulation components like vehicles, buffers, antioxidants, and preservatives
- Manufacturing facilities and processes including design of aseptic areas, environmental controls, and personnel requirements
- Quality control tests for parenterals including clarity, leakage, sterility, and pyrogen testing
This document discusses complexation and protein binding. It defines complexes as molecules where most bonds can be described by classical theories of valency, but one or more bonds are anomalous. Complexes result from donor-acceptor or Lewis acid-base reactions between constituents.
It describes different types of complexes including metal complexes where the metal ion is the central atom. It also discusses organic molecular complexes formed between two organic molecules via hydrogen bonds or van der Waals forces. Inclusion complexes involve one compound being trapped in the lattice structure of another.
Various methods for analyzing complexes are presented, including determining stoichiometric ratios and stability constants using methods like continuous variation, distribution, solubility, and pH titration. Applications of complex
This document discusses rheology, which is the branch of physics dealing with the deformation and flow of liquids. It provides definitions and examples of different types of fluid flow, including Newtonian, plastic, pseudoplastic, and dilatant flow. Key aspects covered include viscosity, shear stress, yield value, and the effects of temperature, particle concentration, and other factors on rheological properties. Common instruments used to measure viscosity, such as capillary, falling sphere, cup and bob, and cone and plate viscometers are also described.
This document discusses interfacial phenomena and surface tension. It begins with definitions of interface, surface tension, and interfacial tension. Several methods for measuring surface tension are described, including the capillary rise method, Du-Nouy ring method, and stallagmometric method. The concepts of surface free energy, spreading coefficient, and surface active agents are also introduced.
1. The document discusses regulatory requirements for drug approval, including non-clinical and clinical studies that must be conducted and submitted to regulatory agencies like the FDA.
2. It describes the various teams involved in drug development, including discovery, preclinical, clinical, manufacturing, and marketing teams. The responsibilities and roles of each team are provided.
3. The approval process is outlined, including requirements for an Investigational New Drug (IND) application to the FDA. The IND must provide data from animal and other preclinical studies. It allows clinical trials to proceed if approved by the FDA within 30 days.
Total quality management (TQM) is a management approach focused on customer satisfaction through continual improvement. It involves all employees and emphasizes strategic planning, fact-based decision making, and effective communication. TQM aims to hold all parties accountable for quality and can improve profitability, customer satisfaction, productivity, and employee morale. Quality by design (QbD) is a concept where quality is planned and designed into products and processes from the development stage to reduce issues and meet customer needs.
This document discusses emulsions and self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS). It defines emulsions as mixtures of two immiscible liquids stabilized by an emulsifying agent. The main types of emulsions described are oil-in-water, water-in-oil, multiple emulsions, and microemulsions. SEDDS are defined as isotropic mixtures of oils, surfactants, and co-solvents/co-surfactants that spontaneously form emulsions when exposed to aqueous media and can improve drug solubility and bioavailability. Key factors in developing SEDDS like choice of oils, surfactants, and evaluation methods are also summarized.
The document discusses kinetics of stability and accelerated stability testing. It provides details on zero order, first order and second order reactions. It explains the determination of rate constants, half life and time for 90% degradation using kinetic equations. The document also discusses Arrhenius equation for predicting shelf life from accelerated stability studies conducted at elevated temperatures. It summarizes the guidelines for stability testing of active pharmaceutical ingredients and finished pharmaceutical products as per ICH.
The document discusses different analytical techniques used to analyze drug-excipient interactions, including thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential thermal analysis (DTA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and FT-IR spectroscopy. Each technique is described in one to two sentences. TGA measures mass changes as temperature changes and provides information on physical and chemical phenomena like decomposition. DTA and DSC measure the temperature and heat flow differences between a sample and reference to determine endothermic and exothermic reactions like melting. XRD analyzes diffraction patterns to characterize crystal structure and polymorphism. FT-IR identifies functional groups and structures by analyzing absorption peaks.
This document provides an overview of pharmaceutical packaging. It discusses the functions of packaging including protection, storage, identification and information provision. It describes common packaging materials like glass, plastic, metal and rubber and how they are used. Different dosage forms like solids, liquids, and parenterals are outlined along with their typical packaging. Recent trends in the industry toward devices like prefilled syringes and regulations from the FDA are also summarized.
The document discusses different methods of microencapsulation including air suspension, coacervation, multiorifice centrifugal process, spray drying, and pan coating. It provides details on the working mechanisms and variables that affect each process. Microencapsulation can be used to encapsulate solids, liquids, or gases to properties such as shelf life, taste, and controlled release profiles.
The document discusses the components and manufacturing of pharmaceutical aerosols. It begins by defining aerosols and pharmaceutical aerosols. It then discusses the key components of aerosols including:
1) Propellants which provide the driving force to expel the product and include liquefied gases, compressed gases, chlorofluorocarbons, hydrocarbons, and hydrofluoroalkanes.
2) Containers which can be made of metal, glass or plastic and must withstand pressure.
3) Valves and actuators which control emission of the product and include metered dose and continuous spray valves as well as spray, foam and mist actuators.
4) The product concentrate containing
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How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
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diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
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changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
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these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...
States of matter
1. STATES OF MATTER
Presented by
(Dr) Kahnu Charan Panigrahi
Asst. Professor, Research Scholar,
Roland Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
(Affiliated to BPUT)
Web of Science Researcher ID: AAK-3095-2020
2. Gases are compressible fluids. Their molecules are widely separated.
Liquids are relatively incompressible fluids. Their molecules are more tightly
packed.
Solids are nearly incompressible and rigid. Their molecules or ions are in close
contact and do not move.
Comparison of Gases, Liquids and Solids
4. A crystalline solid possesses rigid and long-range specific order.
In a crystalline solid, atoms, molecules or ions occupy (predictable)
positions.
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement
and long-range molecular order.
Solids and the crystalline state
5. According to the nature of bond classified to fallowing group:
• Ionic Crystals
• Covalent Crystals
• Metallic Crystals
• Molecular
Types of Crystals
6. No. of crystal system = 7
No. of Space lattice = 14
No. of Geometric structure = 230
NaCl
urea
iodine
sucrose
Boric acid
Crystal forms
iodoform
Thymol
7. POLYMORPHISIM, PSEUDOPOLYMORPHISIM AND AMORPHISM
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF
COMPOUND
CRYSTALINE
POLYMOR
PH
ENANTIOT
ROPIC
MONOTR
OPIC
MOLECULAR
ADUCT
STOICHIOMETRIC
(PSEUDOPOLYMORPH
ISM)
ORGANIC SOLVATE HYDRATES
NONSTOCHIOMETRIC
AMORPHOUS
12/14/2021 Factor affecting drug absorption by K.C Panigrahi 7
8. • Polymorphism is the ability of a substance to exist in more than one crystal
structure
• When the change from one form to another is reversible, it is said to be
enantiotropic.
• When the transition takes place in one direction only—for example, from a
metastable to a stable form—the change is said to be monotropic.
• Element exist in two or more distinct crystalline species called as allotropy.
• Form having high melting point and low solubility are stable form, while
form having low melting point and high solubility called metastable form
Polymorphism
9. Applications of Polymorphism
SOLUBILITY: Riboflavin form I < form II < form III
DISSOLUTION: Methylprednisolone form I < form II
Melting point of Coca butter:
Theobroma oil can exist in 4 different polymorphic forms of which only one is
Stabile
1. Unstable gamma form melting at 18°C
2. Alpha form melting at 22°C
3. Beta prime form melting at 28°C
4. Stable beta form melting at 34.5°C
If the oil is heated to a point where it is completely liquified (about 35 C), the
crystals of the stable polymorph are destroyed & the mass does not crystallize
until it is cooled to 15 C.
The crystals that form are unstable & the suppositories melt at 24 C.
Theobroma suppositories must be prepared below 33 C.
11. PSEUDOMORPHISM
• Pseudomorphs are defined as those solid which form inclusion of small
amount of solvent.
• In case of stoichimetric type of adduct, the solvent molecules are
incorporated in the crystal lattice which are called as solvates and the
solvent called as solvent of crystallisation.
• When the solvent associated is water then solvate are called as hydrate.
• Generally anhydrous form has grater water solubility than the hydrates
• organic solvates have better aqueous solubility than anhydrous form.
• The anhydrous form of ampicillin have higher aqueous solubility then
hydrous form
• Chloroform solvate of griseofluvin have more aqueous solubility than non-
solvate form.
12. Amorphous Solid
An amorphous solid does not possess a well-defined arrangement and long-
range molecular order.
Amorphous substances, as well as cubic crystal, are isotropic, that is, they
exhibit similar properties in all direction.
In these solids particles are randomly arranged in three dimension.
They don’t have sharp melting points.
Amorphous solids are also known as super cooled liquid.
Amorphous solids melt over a wide range of temperature
13. • Increasing order of melting point
AMORPHOUS < METASTBLE < STABLE
• Increasing order of solubility
STABLE < METASTBLE <AMORPHOUS
• The crystalline from of novobiocin acid is poorly absorbed,
where as the amorphous form is readily absorbed and
therapeutically active.
14. Differential scanning calorimetry
• PRINCIPLE: It is a technique in which the difference in heat
required to increase temperature of the sample & reference
material is measured as a function of temp. or time.
• Endothermic reaction: if sample absorbs some amount of heat
during phase transition then reaction is said to be
endothermic. Downward peak result
• E.g. Melting, boiling, sublimation, vaporization, de-solvation.
12/14/2021 K.C. PANIGRAHI 14
15. • Exothermic reaction: if sample released some amount of heat during
phase transition, then reaction is said to be exothermic. Upward peak
result.
• E.g crystallization, degradation, polymerization
• Glass Transition temp(Tg): Temp at which an amorphous polymer or an
amorphous part of crystalline polymer goes from hard , brittle state to
soft or rubbery state.
12/14/2021 K.C. PANIGRAHI 15
17. Application of DSC
• During pre-formulation, it is important to identify the polymorph that
are stable
• A sharp melting endotherm indicates the relative purity where as broad
asymmetric curve suggest impurity.
• DSC with the support of x-ray diffraction & infrared spectroscopy are
used as screening technique for the compatibility testing of drug with
excipient.
• The disappearance of the DSC peak of the drug is the proof of
complexation in solid state.
18. X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION
PRINCIPLE:
• X-RAY powder diffractometry is used to characterize spray dried,
crystalline material & the binary mixtures.
• x-ray are diffracted & order of this diffraction is measured in form of
graph between spectra intensity vs 2ɵ (0-40)
• Diffraction occurs as a result of the interaction of radiation with electron
of atom.
• Because x-rays have wavelengths of about the same magnitude as the
distance between the atoms or molecules of crystal.
12/14/2021 K.C. PANIGRAHI 18
19. Application of X-ray diffraction
• Structure of Crystals
• Polymer Characterization
• Identification Of Impurity
• identify the solvated and anhydrous forms of a compound
• XRD is widely used to determine the degree of crystallinity of
pharmaceuticals
Bragg’s law:
When X ray is diffracted by the atom a relationship between
wavelength, angle of incidence light and distance between
successive atomic plane was established as:
nƛ = 2d sin ɵ
Where n = 1,2,3 … order of reflection
This equation is applied to calculate distance between the plane.
12/14/2021 K.C. PANIGRAHI 19
20. XRD patterns of (a) crystalline and (b) amorphous sucrose
12/14/2021 K.C. PANIGRAHI 20
Degree of crystallinity
𝒙 =
𝑰𝒄
𝑰𝒄+ 𝑰𝒂
x 100
22. General properties
• Liquids are denser than gases and occupy a definitevolume and density due to the
presence of van der Waalsforces unlike gases.
• Liquid have no definite shape like gases
• Liquids have translational motion i.e. liquids move as a whole
• If we allow gas to expand rapidly (inside a vacuum flask) so that no heat enters system,
such expansion is known as adiabatic expansion.
• As a result of that temperature of gas reduces. This cooling effect is known as Joule-
Thomson effect.
• Inversion temperature is the temperature below which gas cool when expand. (H= -80C
and He =-240C)
• When the rate of condensation equals the rate of vaporization at a definite temperature,
the vapour becomes saturated and a dynamic equilibrium is established.
• The pressure of the saturated vapour above the liquid is then known as the equilibrium
vapourpressure.
23. Vapor pressure of liquids
Clausius–Clapeyron equation
• Any point on one of the curve
represents a condition in which the
liquid and the vapor exist together
in equilibrium.
• If the temperature of any of the
liquids is increased while the pressure
is held constant, or if the pressure is
decreased while the temperature is
held constant, all the liquid will pass
into the vapour state.
• The area covering right side of curve
represent vapour phase while on left
side represent liquid phase.
24. Vapor pressure of liquids
Clausius–Clapeyron equation
Clausius–Clapeyron equation expresses the relationship
between the vapor pressure and the absolute temperature of a liquid:
log
𝑷𝟐 ∆𝑯𝒗 𝑻𝟐−𝑻𝟏
=
𝑷𝟏 2.303 𝑹𝑻𝟏𝑻𝟐
P1 and P2: vapor pressures at absolute temperatures T1 and T2.
ΔHv: the molar heat of vaporization (the heat absorbed by 1 moleof liquid
when it passes into the vapor state). For water it is 40.67MJ/kmol
25. Boiling point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the
external or atmospheric pressure isknown as the boiling point.
The absorbed heat used to change the liquid to vapor (at constant
temperature i.e., boiling point) is called the latent heats of vaporization.
For water it is 40.67MJ/kmol
26. Boiling point
• The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals an
atmospheric pressure of 1 atm is called normal boilingpoint
• At higher elevations, the atmospheric pressure decreases and the boiling
point is lowered.
• At a pressure of 700 mm Hg, water boils at 97.7°C; at 17.5 mm Hg, it boils at
20°C.
• The change in boiling point with pressure can be computed by using the
Clausius–Clapeyron equation.
• Polar molecules (e.g water) exhibit high boiling points and high heats of
vaporization because they are associated through hydrogen bonds.
• Alcohols boil at a much higher temperature than saturated hydrocarbons
through hydrogen bonding.
• The boiling points of carboxylic acids are higher than that of alcohols
because the acids form dimers through hydrogen bonding.
27. Critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature above which the gas cannot be made to
liquefy, OR is the temperature above which the liquid can no longer exist
The critical pressure (Pc) is the minimum pressure required to liquefy a gas at its
critical temperature.
Critical temperature (Tc) of water is 374°C, or 647 K, and its critical pressure (Pc) is
218 atm or 22.08 pa.
• Critical temperature (Tc) of Carbon dioxide is 31.1°C, and its critical pressure (Pc) is
7.37 pa.
Liquefaction of Gases
28.
29. Supercritical fluid
• When a compound is subjected to a pressure and a temperature
higher than its critical point, the fluid is said to be " supercritical " .
• In the supercritical region, the fluid exhibits particular proporties and
has an intermediate behaviour between that of a liquid and a gas.
• In particular, supercritical fluids (SCFs) possess liquid-like densities,
gas-like viscosities and diffusivities intermediate to that of a liquid
and a gas. And hence termed as mesophase.
• The fluid is said "supercritical" when it is heated above its critical
temperature and compressed above its critical pressure.
30. • Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most widely used supercritical
fluid. This is because CO2 is chemically inert, non-toxic, non-
flammable and the critical point of CO2 is easily accessible. (critical
temperature 31°C and critical pressure 74 bar).
• Due to its interesting properties Supercritical CO2 can be
described as a ‘green solvent’.
• All supercritical fluids are completely miscible with each other
• Application: food extraction, volatile oil extraction,
chromatography, Elimination of toxic substance, Crystallisation of
compound.
31. Liquid Crystal
• Liquid crystals (LCs) are a state of matter which has properties
between those of conventional liquids and those of solid crystals. For
instance, a liquid crystal may flow like a liquid, but its molecules may
be oriented in a crystal-like way hence posses refractive index.
32. • In a nematic phase ("thread-like") the molecules are aligned in the same
direction but are free to drift around randomly, very much as in an
ordinary liquid.
• Owing to their polarity, the alignment of the rod-like molecules can be
controlled by applying an electric field.
• In smectic ("soap-like") phases the molecules are arranged in layers, with
the long molecular axes approximately perpendicular to the laminar
planes. T
• The only long-range order extends along this axis, with the result that
individual layers can slip over each other (hence the "soap-like" nature) in
a manner similar to that observed in graphite.
• Cholesteric liquid crystal is a combination of nematic and smectic type.
34. Ideal Gas Equation
1
Boyle’s law: P V (at constant n and T)
Charles’ law: V T (at constant n and P)
Avogadro’s law: V n (at constant P and T)
P1V
T1
=
P2V
T
2
PV = nRT
R is the gas constant
2
1
Combined Gas Equation
GASEOUS STATE LAW
36. The conditions 0 0C and 1 atm are called standard temperature
and pressure (STP).
Experiments show that at STP, 1 mole of an ideal gas occupies
22.414 L.
PV = nRT
R = PV =
nT
(1 atm)(22.414L)
(1 mol)(273.15 K)
R =0.082057 L • atm / (mol • K)
37. 9
What is the volume (in liters) occupied by 49.8 g of HCl at STP?
PV = nRT
V =
nRT
P
T = 0 0C = 273.15 K
P = 1 atm
n = 49.8 g x
1 mol HCl
36.45 g HCl
= 1.37 mol
V =
1 atm
1.37 mol x 0.0821 L•atm
x 273.15 K
mol•K
V = 30.7 L
1 atm ≈760.001 mm-Hg
38. Phase Equilibria & The Phase Rule
Gibbs phase rule stated as:
A gaseous mixture of CO2 and N2:F = 2 - 1 + 2 = 3
Three variables: pressure, temperature and composition. This is
a trivariant system.
39. A phase is defined as any homogeneous and physically distinct part of a system
which is separated from other parts of the system by interfaces.
A part of a system is homogeneous if it has identical physical properties and
chemical composition throughout the part.
Liquid water, pieces of ice and water vapour are present together. The number
of phases is 3 as each form is a separate phase.
Calcium carbonate undergoes thermal decomposition. The chemical reaction
is:
CaCO3(s) = CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Number of phases = 2 : This system consists of 2 solid phases, CaCO3 and CaO
and one gaseous phase, that of CO2
Phase Definition
40. The number of components of a system at equilibrium is the smallest
number of independently varying chemical constituents using which the
composition of each and every phase in the system can be expressed.
A mixture of ethanol and water is an example of a two component system.
We need both ethanol and water to express its composition.
Components
Degrees of freedom
The degrees of freedom is the least number of intensive property which
must be fixed in order to define the system completely.
temperature
pressure
Concentration
Density
42. The Critical Solution Temperature: CST
Is the maximum temperature at which the
two conjugate solution merges into one
layer in all proportion. (or upper
consolute temperature).
In the case of the phenol-water system,
this is 66.8oC (point h) at 34% phenol
All combinations of phenol and water >
CST are completely miscible and yield 1-
phase liquid systems.
Application: Purity of phenol
44. A eutectic mixture is defined as a mixture of two or more components
which usually do not interact to form a new chemical compound but, which
at certain ratios, inhibit the crystallization process of one another resulting
in a system having a lower melting point than either of the components
EMLA® (lidocaine 2.5% and prilocaine 2.5%) Cream
EMLA Cream (lidocaine 2.5% and prilocaine 2.5%) is an emulsion in which
the oil phase is a eutectic mixture of lidocaine and prilocaine in a ratio of
1:1 by weight. This eutectic mixture has a melting point below room
temperature at 18 C and therefore both local anesthetics exist as a liquid
oil rather than as crystals
Eutectic mixture : Pharmaceutical Application