The spinal cord begins at the foramen magnum and extends down to the L1-L2 vertebrae. It has 31 segments and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions. It is protected by vertebrae, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal cord contains gray matter with dorsal and ventral horns and white matter tracts. It transmits motor and sensory signals between the brain and body.
gross Anatomy of Mid Brain.location an relation of midbrain. external an internal features of mid brain. cross section at the level of superior and inferior colliculus. Anterior and posterior view of midbrain.
clinical correlation of midbrain.
gross Anatomy of Mid Brain.location an relation of midbrain. external an internal features of mid brain. cross section at the level of superior and inferior colliculus. Anterior and posterior view of midbrain.
clinical correlation of midbrain.
understanding spinal cord, its bransches, lesions, functions and anatomy.
hope to give you better knowledge of spinal cord by the end of it.
plese review ans comment for my future updates and corrections that iw ill be needing in this.
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
understanding spinal cord, its bransches, lesions, functions and anatomy.
hope to give you better knowledge of spinal cord by the end of it.
plese review ans comment for my future updates and corrections that iw ill be needing in this.
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
BACK AND AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
EMBRYOLOGY
GROSS ANATOMY
PIA MATER, ARACHNOID, DURA MATER
ANATOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM AND PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
2. The spinal cord is the major reflex center and conduction pathway between the body and
brain.
This cylindrical structure,slightly flattened anteriorly and posteriorly, is protected by the
vertebrae, their associated ligaments and muscles, the spinal meninges, and the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
The spinal cord begins as a continuation of the medulla oblongata, the caudal part of the
brainstem.
In adults, the spinal cord is 42–45 cm long and extends from the foramen magnum in the
occipital bone to the level of the L1 or L2 vertebra .
However, its tapering inferior end, the conus medullaris, may terminate as high as T12
vertebra or as low as L3 vertebra.
Thus the spinal cord occupies only the superior two thirds of the vertebral canal.
3. Contd….
There are 31 spinal cord segments, each with a pair of ventral (anterior) and
dorsal (posterior) spinal nerve roots, which mediate motor and sensory function,
respectively.
It has two enlargements,
Cervical enlargements: supply upper limbs
Lumbosacral enlargements:supplies lower limbs
The ventral and dorsal nerve roots combine on each side to form the spinal
nerves as they exit from the vertebral column through the neuroforamina.
6. Spinal Meninges
1. Spinal dura matter
a prolongation of the inner layer of the dura mater of the posterior cranial fossa. •
It extends downwards through the foramen magnum to the level of S2 vertebra.
• It is attached rather firmly to the tectorial membrane ( and to the posterior longitudinal
ligament on the body of the axis vertebra.
2. Spinal arachnoid matter
The spinal arachnoid mater is supported by the inner surface of the spinal dura; nothing
but a thin film of lymph separates these two membranes.
Below the level of the spinal cord (i.e. over the cauda equina) the arachnoid is nothing
but a delicate membrane that is supported by the dura mater.
3. Spinal pia mater
• It clothes the spinal cord and enters to line the anterior median sulcus.
It is prolonged over the spinal nerve roots and blends with their epineurium.
7. The spinal cord is enlarged in two regions in relationship to innervation of the
limbs.
The cervical enlargement extendsfrom C4 through T1 segments of the spinal
cord, and most of the anterior rami of the spinal nerves arising from it form the
brachial plexus of nerves that innervates the upper limbs.
The lumbosacral (lumbar) enlargement extends from T11 through S1 segments
of the spinal cord, inferior to which the cord continues to diminish as the conus
medullaris.
The anterior rami of the spinal nerves arising from this enlargement make up the
lumbar and sacral plexuses of nerves that innervate the lower limbs.
8. Spinal cord segment
The portion of the spinal cord giving rise to the rootlets and roots that ultimately
form one bilateral pair of spinal nerves is designated a spinal cord segment, the
identity of which is the same as the spinal nerves arising from it.
There are 31 spinal cord segments, each with a pair of ventral (anterior) and
dorsal (posterior) spinal nerve roots, which mediate motor and sensory function,
respectively. The ventral and dorsal nerve roots combine on each side to form the
spinal nerves as they exit from the vertebral column through the neuroforamina
9. Longitudinal organization
The spinal cord is divided longitudinally into four regions: the cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, and sacral cord.
The spinal cord extends from the base of the skull and terminates near the
lower margin of the first lumbar vertebral body (L1).
Below that level, the spinal canal contains the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
spinal nerve roots that comprise the cauda equina.
10.
11. Cervical cord
The first cervical vertebra (the atlas) and the second cervical vertebra (the axis), upon
which the atlas pivots, support the head at the atlanto-occiput junction. The interface
between the first and second vertebra is called the atlanto-axis junction.
Cervical spinal segments innervate the skin and musculature of the upper extremity and
diaphragm.
C3 through C5 innervate the diaphragm, the chief muscle of inspiration, via the phrenic
nerve
C4 through C7 innervate the shoulder and arm musculature
C6 through C8 innervate the forearm extensors and flexors
C8 through T1 innervate the hand musculature
12.
13. Thoracic cord
The thoracic vertebral segments are defined by those that have an attached
rib.
The spinal roots form the intercostal nerves that run along the inferior rib
margin and innervate the associated dermatomes, as well as the intercostal
abdominal wall musculature.
The thoracic cord also contains the sympathetic nerves that innervate the
heart and abdominal organs
14. Lumbosacral cord
The lumbosacral spinal cord contains the segments that
innervate the muscles and dermatomes of the lower
extremity, as well as the buttocks and anal regions .
Sacral nerve roots S3 through S5 originate in the narrow
terminal part of the cord, called the conus medullaris.
Sacral nerve roots also provide parasympathetic
innervation of pelvic and abdominal organs, while
lumbar nerve roots L1 and L2 contain sympathetic
innervation of some pelvic and abdominal organs.
15. Cauda equina
In adults, the spinal cord ends at the level of the first or second lumbar
vertebral bodies.
The filum terminale, a thin connective tissue filament that descends from
the conus medullaris with the spinal nerve roots, is connected to the third,
fourth, and fifth sacral vertebrae; its terminal part is fused to the periosteum
at the base of the coccygeal bone.
Pathology at the T12 and L1 vertebral level affects the lumbar cord. Injuries
to L2 frequently damage the conus medullaris. Injuries below L2 usually
involve the cauda equina and represent injuries to spinal roots rather than to
the spinal cord
16. Cross-sectional anatomy
The spinal cord contains the gray matter, the butterfly-shaped central
region, and the surrounding white matter tracts.
The spinal cord gray matter, which contains the neuronal cell bodies, is
made up of the dorsal and ventral horns, each divided into several laminae
17. GRAY MATTER
Dorsal horn
The dorsal horn is the entry point of sensory information into the central nervous system.
It is divided into six layers or laminae that process sensory information.
More than a relay station for the transmission of sensory information, the dorsal horn also
modulates pain transmission through spinal and supraspinal regulatory circuits.
Ventral horn
The motor nuclei of the spinal cord are contained within the ventral horn, which also
contains interneurons mediating information from other descending tracts of the
pyramidal and extrapyramidal motor systems.
These ultimately synapse on the alpha and gamma motor neurons, which subsequently
leave the ventral horn via the ventral nerve root to terminate at the neuromuscular
junction.
18. White matter
A collection of nerve fibers that connects two grey matter with CNS is
called white matter tract.
Tracts may be ascending or descending.
They are named after the masses of grey matter connected by them.