The document provides information about the structure and functions of the cerebrum and its lobes. It discusses:
- The four lobes of the cerebrum - frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes.
- The frontal lobe contains motor and premotor areas that control voluntary movement, as well as prefrontal areas involved in higher cognitive functions. Damage can result in frontal lobe syndrome.
- The parietal lobe contains primary and secondary sensory areas that process touch, proprioception, and discrimination of sensory inputs.
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
understanding spinal cord, its bransches, lesions, functions and anatomy.
hope to give you better knowledge of spinal cord by the end of it.
plese review ans comment for my future updates and corrections that iw ill be needing in this.
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
understanding spinal cord, its bransches, lesions, functions and anatomy.
hope to give you better knowledge of spinal cord by the end of it.
plese review ans comment for my future updates and corrections that iw ill be needing in this.
You can watch the video on my you tube channel: https://youtu.be/I0FaX-iQfa0
Medulla oblongata or more simply medulla is part of brain stem which forms base of the brain stem. It contains pyramid, olive and above pyramidal structure, there is decussation of pyramids which explains why each part of brain controls opposite part of body. Adding to that medulla also has several nuclei which controls activity of cardiovascular system and respiratory system. Medulla also has nuclei for controlling reflexes of vomiting, swallowing, hiccuping, coughing and sneezing. It has also nuclei for test, hearing and balance. Medulla also contains nuclei of cranial nerve number VIII, IX, X, XI and XII.
You can watch the video on my you tube channel: https://youtu.be/I0FaX-iQfa0
Medulla oblongata or more simply medulla is part of brain stem which forms base of the brain stem. It contains pyramid, olive and above pyramidal structure, there is decussation of pyramids which explains why each part of brain controls opposite part of body. Adding to that medulla also has several nuclei which controls activity of cardiovascular system and respiratory system. Medulla also has nuclei for controlling reflexes of vomiting, swallowing, hiccuping, coughing and sneezing. It has also nuclei for test, hearing and balance. Medulla also contains nuclei of cranial nerve number VIII, IX, X, XI and XII.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
3. CONTENTS
• Anatomical and functional relationships
• Functions of specific cortical areas
• The association areas
• Functions of the brain in communication
• Function of corpus callosum
• Thoughts, consciousness and memory
• Immediate memory
• Short term and long term memory
4. • Consists of two cerebral hemispheres,
separated- in upper part falx cerebri invaginates
- in lower part two hemispheres connected by
white commissure, corpus callosum
Each hemisphere,
3 poles-
Frontal pole anteriorly
Occipital pole posteriorly
Temporal pole
Surfaces-
Superolateral surface
Medial surface
Inferior surface
Borders-
Superomedial border
Inferolateral border
Medial border
Surface of a hemisphere-
Covered by thin grey matter (2-4mm)
Folded with intervening grooves of
fissures,
Folds or convolutions- gyri
Intervening fissures- sulci
As a result of folding, cerebral cortex
surface area, much larger
5. General Appearance
of
cerebral hemispheres:
Separated by a deep
midline
sagittal fissure
– longitudinal cerebral
fissure
The fissure contains
falx cerebri and the
anterior cerebral arteries
In the depth of the
fissure, the
corpus callosum
connects the
hemispheres across
the midline
6. Lobes-
• Each hemisphere- 4 lobes,
• Boundaries separating one lobe from another on the superolateral
surface are formed by three prominent sulci and two imaginary
lines
• Sulci, separating lobes are-
- Central sulcus or fissure of Rolando
- Posterior ramus of lateral or Sylvian sulcus
- Parieto-occipital sulcus
• Imaginary lines-
- First line- connects upper end of parieto-occipital sulcus to
parieto-occipital notch
- Second line- backward continuation of the posterior ramus of
lateral sulcus to meet the first imaginary line
7. Parieto-occipital
sulcus
Central sulcus/
Fissure of Rolando
Posterior ramus
of lateral sulcus
(Sylvian sulcus)
Frontal
pole
Temporal pole
Inferolateral
border
Occipital
pole
Second
imaginary line
First
imaginary
line
Motor
functions
Sensory
functions
Hearing
Vision
8. The Occipital Lobe-posterior end of cortex
Contains primary visual cortex
The Parietal Lobe-between occipital lobe & the central sulcus
Contains the primary somatosensory cortex-receiving touch
sensation, muscle-stretch information and joint position
information
The Temporal Lobe-lateral portion of each hemisphere, near the
temples
Contains targets for audition, essential for understanding
spoken language, complex visual processes, emotional and
motivational behaviors
The Frontal Lobe-extends from the central sulcus to the anterior
limit of the brain
Contains Primary Motor Cortex-fine movements
Contributes to shifting attention, planning of action, delayed
response tasks as examples
9. Layers of the Cerebrum
Gray matter
Outer layer
Composed mostly
of neuron cell
bodies
White matter
Fiber tracts inside the
gray matter
Example: corpus callosum
connects hemispheres
10. Any man who can drive safely while kissing a pretty girl is simply not
giving the kiss the attention it deserves.
Albert Einstein
11. Why do women multitask better than men?
• The inferior-parietal lobe is larger in men than in women.
• This area of the brain is thought to control characteristics that
make a person more prone to mechanical and
analytical thought.
• The corpus callosum, the space between the right and left
hemispheres of the brain is larger in women than in men and
contains more neural pathways. This is thought to make
women superior in processing language, information,
emotion and cognition.
• Hence, women are superior in
understanding the subtleties of
relationships, emotional overtones,
and artistic expressions.
12. Cortical functional areas
• Brodmann divided cortex into 47 areas, based on
cytoarchitecture(number & thickness of cortical lamellae & cell type)
Motor areas-
• Primary motor area( Brodmann’s area 4)
• Premotor area(area 6)
• Frontal eye field(area 8)
• Supplementary motor area
Sensory areas-
• Primary somaesthetic areas ( area 3,1 and 2)
• Secondary (supplementary) somaesthetic area
• Somaesthetic association areas (area 5,7 and higher association area
40)
13. Auditory areas-
• Primary auditory area (area 41) or auditory area I
• Auditory association area (area 42) or auditory area II
• Higher auditory association area (area 22)
Visual areas-
• Primary visual area (area 17) or visuostriate area of visual area I
• Visual association area 18 (peristriate area)
• Visual association area 19 ( parastriate area)
Speech areas-
- Motor speech area-
• Anterior area (Broca’s area) or
areas 44,45
• Superior area
- Sensory speech areas-
• Area 39 (reading centre)
• Area 40
• Area 22 (Wernicke’s area)
Smell area- area 28
Gustatory area- area 43
14. Phylogenetical divisions of cerebral
cortex
• Cerebral cortex- ‘Pallium’, divided into three-
1. Allocortex- old cortex
• Forms 10% of entire cortex
• Divided into-
Archipallium (ancient cortex)- hippocampus & dentate gyrus
Paleopallium (old cortex)- uncus, part of parahippocampal gyrus-
belong to piriform area of olfactory cortex
• Allocortex- also called limbic cortex, as most of allocortex located
around peripheral margin of the diencephalon in the form of a ring.
• Ring of limbic cortex functions as a two way communication linkage
between neocortex and lower limbic structures.
• Along with thalamus & hypothalamus, limbic cortex is concerned
with emotional & instinctive behaviour.
15. 2. Mesocortex- transitional zone between allocortex and neocortex
and comprises the cingulate gyrus, part of parahippocampal gyrus
and subiculum.
3. Neocortex-
• Isocortex
• 90% of cerebral cortex
• With evolution of mammals the extent of neocortex has increased
17. I. Frontal lobe
• Lies in front of central sulcus and above posterior ramus of lateral
sulcus
• 1/3rd of cortical surface.
• On basis of function, subdivided into-
a. Precentral cortex
b. Prefrontal cortex
18. a. Precentral cortex-
• Posterior part of frontal lobe
• Includes lip of central sulcus, precentral gyrus and posterior part
of superior, middle and inferior frontal gyri.
• Stimulation at different points- activity of discrete skeletal muscles
• Excitomotor area of cortex
• Stimulation causes some sensory perception- ‘Sensorimotor
cortex’
Areas-
i. Primary motor area-
Brodmann’s area 44, 45
ii. Premotor area-
Brodmann’s area 6,8,44
and 45
iii. Supplementary motor
area
19. i. Primary motor area-
- Area 4
- Presence of giant pyramidal
cells called Betz cells in
ganglionic layer and a thin
granular layer.
- Area is centre for volition
i.e, it is concerned with
initiation of voluntary
movements of the contra-
lateral half of the body
and initiation of speech
area 45 also called suppressor
area, forms a narrow strip
anterior to area 4.
- It inhibits movements
initiated by area 4.
20. ii. Premotor area-
• Lies anterior to primary
motor area
• Includes Brodmann’s area
6,8,44 and 45
• Absence of giant pyramidal
cells in ganglionic layer
• Involved in integration of
voluntary movements
• Thus, skilled movements
are accurate and smooth.
21. • Area 6- 6a (upper) and 6b (lower)
• (Electrical) Stimulation of area 6a causes generalized pattern of
movements like rotation of head, eyes and trunk towards opposite
side
• Stimulation of area 6b produces rhythmic, complex coordinated
movements involving muscles of face, buccal cavity, larynx and
pharynx
• Lesions lead to loss of skilled movements, recovery may occur but
movements become awkward- grasping reflex
• Lesion of area 6 with area 4- hemiplegia with spastic paralysis
22. Area 8-
• Frontal eyelid
• Lies anterior to area 6
• Concerned with control of eye movements
• Electrical stimulation causes conjugate movements of eyeball to the
opposite side, opening and closure of eyelids, pupillary dilatation
and lacrimation
• Lesions of this area turns eye towards the affected side.
Area 44 and 45 or BROCA’s motor speech area-
• Movements of structures responsible for the production of voice
and articulation of speech, activation of vocal cords simultaneously
with movements of mouth and tongue during speech
• Lesions of this area causes motor aphasia i.e, inability to speak the
word although vocalization is possible
23. iii. Supplementary motor area-
In association with premotor area provides attitudinal movements,
fixation movement of different segments of the body and positional
movements of head and eyes
25. • Major areas- Brodmann’s areas 9-14, 23, 24,29, 32, 44-47
• Centre for planned actions
• Centre for higher functions- emotions, learning, memory and
social behaviour
• Responsible for various autonomic changes during emotional
conditions because of connections with hypothalamus and brain
stem
• Seat of intelligence/organ of mind- short term memories
registered here
• Can keep track of many bits of information and ability to recall this
information bit by bit for subsequent thoughts.
• Control of intellectual activities like prognosticate, plan future,
allows to concentrate on central theme of thought- helps in depth
and abstractness of thought and thereby in elaboration of
thought.
• Allows to delay action in response to incoming sensory signals so
sensory signals can be weighed until best response is obtained.
26. • Allows to consider the consequence of motor activites before their
performance
• Plays role in solution of complicated mathematical, legal and
philosophical problems
• Allows to correct avenues of information in diagnosis of rare
diseases
• Allows to control ones activity according to the moral laws
27. Frontal lobe syndrome
• Symptom complex occurring due to injury or ablation of prefrontal cortex
• Prefrontal leucotomy- cutting the connection between thalamus and
prefrontal lobe also results in frontal lobe syndrome.
• Flight of ideas- difficulty in planning
• Emotional instability
• Euphoria- false sense of well being, failure to realize or indifference to
seriousness of others feelings or emotions
• Impairment of memory- recent memory only
• Loss of moral and social sense
• Lack of attention and power of concentration
• Lack of initiative following marked depression of intellectual activity
• Functional abnormalities like hyperphagia, loss of control over urinary or
rectal sphincters
• Disturbances in orientation
• Slight tremor
28. Further Investigation
Phineas Gage: Phineas Gage was a railroad worker in the 19th century living in
Cavendish, Vermont. One of his jobs was to set off explosive charges in large rock in
order to break them into smaller pieces. On one of these instances, the detonation
occurred prior to his expectations, resulting in a 42 inch long, 1.2 inch wide, metal
rod to be blown right up through his skull and out the top. The rod entered his skull
below his left cheek bone and exited after passing through the anterior frontal lobe
of his brain.
29. Remarkably, Gage never lost consciousness, or quickly regained it (there is
still some debate), suffered little to no pain, and was awake and alert when
he reached a doctor approximately 45 minutes later. He had a normal pulse
and normal vision, and following a short period of rest, returned to work
several days later. However, he was not unaffected by this accident.
Learn more about Phineas Gage: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phineas_Gage
30. Gage’s personality, reasoning, and capacity to understand and follow social
norms had been diminished or destroyed. He illustrated little to no interest in
hobbies or other involvements that at one time he cared for greatly. ‘After the
accident, Gage became a nasty, vulgar, irresponsible vagrant. His former
employer, who regarded him as "the most efficient and capable foreman in their
employ previous to his injury," refused to rehire him because he was so
different.’
The first identified (2009) portrait of Gage,
shown here with his "constant companion for
the remainder of his life"—his inscribed
tamping iron
31. Gage is a fixture in the curricula of neurology, psychology and related
disciplines, and is frequently mentioned in books and academic papers; he
even has a minor place in popular culture. Despite this celebrity the body of
established fact about Gage and what he was like (whether before or after
his accident) is remarkably small, which has allowed "the fitting of almost
any theory to the small number of facts we have"—Gage having been cited,
over the years, by proponents of various theories of the brain wholly contra-
dictory to one another.
32. II. Parietal lobe
• Lies between central sulcus and parieto-occipital sulcus and upper
part of first imaginary line
• Divided into three parts functionally,
• Primary sensory area(corresponds to Brodmann’s area 3,1 & 2),
also called primary somatosensory area or first somatosensory
area, SI
• Secondary sensory area or second somatic sensory area SII
• Sensory association areas (Brodmann’s area 5,7)
33. i. Primary sensory area/ first somatic sensory area/SI
• Occupies posterior wall of central sulcus, postcentral gyrus and
postcentral part of paracentral lobule
• Includes Brodmann’s area 3,1 and 2
• Granular cortex densely packed with stellate cells, with few small
and medium sized pyramidal cells
• Recieves sensory inputs from opposite half of the body
• Sensations derived from skin are appreciated in anterior part of the
area and proprioceptive sensations in posterior part of the area
• Electrical stimulation of area produces vague sensations like
numbness and tingling
• If lesions occur without involving thalamus, sensations are
perceived but discriminative functions are lost. If thalamus also
affected, loss of sensations in opposite side of body
34. ii. Secondary sensory area/ SII
• Situated in post central gyrus below first somatic sensory area,
most of it buried in the superior wall of the sylvian fissure
• Recieves sensory impulses from primary sensory area as well as
thalamus
• Neurons in anterior part respond to touch whereas neurons in
posterior part can be excited by touch, auditory, visual and
nociceptive stimuli
• Lesions produce deficits in discriminative power whereas sensory
processing in SI not affected.
35. iii. Sensory association areas
• Include area 5 and 7, also area 40- higher association area
• Area 5- lies posterior to area SI in parietal lobe and contains
neurons which react to passive or active rotation of a joint or joints
• Area 7- concerned with more elaborate process of discrimination
between stimuli
• Area 40- higher association area, concerned with stereognosis i.e,
recognition of common objects placed in the hand without looking
at them.
• Lesion affecting this area produces tactile agnosia
36. Functions of parietal lobe
• SI localizes, analyzes and discriminates different cutaneous and
proprioceptive senses
• Area 3- receives cutaneous sensations of touch, pressure, position
and vibratory senses
• Area 1- receives projections from cutaneous and joint senses
• Area 2- primarily concerned with deep senses from muscles and
joints
• SII receives sensory impulses from SI and thalamus, concerned
with perception of sensation. Thus sensory parts of the body have
two representation in area SI and SII.
• Sensory assoc. areas (5,7)- assoc. with more elaborate process of
discrimination between the stimuli, thus helps in differentiating
the relative intensity of different stimuli. Eg:- warm objects from
warmer, cold from colder etc
• Higher association areas (40)- stereognosis- recognition of
common familiar objects placed in hand without looking at them
37. III. Temporal lobe
• Lies below posterior ramus of lateral sulcus and its continuation,
the second imaginary line.
38. Areas of temporal lobe-
Major areas-
• Primary auditory area- area 41, 42
• Auditory association area- area 22,21,20
39. i. Primary auditory area
• Audiosensory area- Brodmann’s area 41, 42 and forms centre for
hearing
• Situated in middle of superior temporal gyrus on the upper margin
and on its deep or insular aspect (Heschl’s or transverse temporal
gyrus).
ii. Auditory association area
• Corresponds to Brodmann’s area 22, 21, 20
• Area 22- Wernicke’s area, sensory speech centre
• Functions are interpretation of the meaning of what is heard and
comprehension of spoken languages and the formation of ideas
that are articulated in speech
• Area 21, 20- located in the middle and inferior temporal gyrus
respectively
• Receive impulses from primary area and are concerned with
interpretation and integration of auditory impulses
• Lesions of these areas impair auditory, short term memory without
impairing visual memory.
41. • Lies behind parieto-occipital sulcus and its continuation down an
imaginary line, concerned with vision
• Mostly formed of sensory and association areas and has only
slight motor function.
Contains visual cortex having three areas-
• Primary visual cortex (area 17)- striate area, receives fibres of
optic radiations which bring impulses from parts of both retinae,
constitutes the centre of vision
• Visual association area (area 18)- peristriate area
• Visual association area or occipital eyefield (area 19)- parastriate
area
IV. Occipital lobe
42. Functions-
• Primary visual area (area 17) is concerned with perception of visual
impulses
• Visual association areas (area 18 and area 19) are concerned with
interpretation of visual impulses. These are involved in the
recognition and identification of objects in the light of past
experience.
• Occipital eyefield area (area 19) is concerned with the movements
of eyeball.
43. White matter of cerebrum
• Passing through, between and around the subcortical masses of
grey matter of cerebrum are tracts of white fibres.
3 types-
• Association fibres
• Commissural fibres
• Projection fibres
44. Association fibres
• Connect different gyri of the same hemisphere.
2 types-
• Short association fibres- connect adjacent gyri
• Long association fibres- connect widely separated gyri-
Five groups-
• Superior longitudinal fasciculus
• Inferior longitudinal fasciculus
• Cingulum
• Fronto-occipital fasciculus
• Uncinate fasciculus
45. Commissural fibres
• Connect corresponding parts of two cerebral hemispheres with
each other. There are five bundles of commissural fibres.
• Corpus callosum
• Anterior commissure
• Posterior commissure
• Habenular commissure
• Hippocampal commissure
46. Projection fibres
• Connect cerebral hemispheres with other parts of CNS eg:-
thalamus, brain stem and spinal cord
• Afferent and efferent
• Corona radiata (fountain of fibres)- refers to that part of projection
fibres that radiates from the upper end of internal capsule to
cerebral cortex. Contains both ascending and descending fibres.
• Internal capsule- thick curved band of projection fibres that occupy
the space between thalamus and caudate nucleus medially and the
lentiform nucleus laterally.
47. Internalcapsule
• Thick curved band of projection fibres that occupy the space
between thalamus and caudate nucleus medially and the lentiform
nucleus laterally.
Subdivisions-
• Anterior limb-
• Genu
• Posterior limb
• Retrolenticular or caudal part
• Sublentiform part
48. Applied aspect-
• Vulnerable to effects of even a pinpoint vascular lesion, as
pyramidal fibres are compressed in a little space
• Damage to internal capsule from infarction and haemorrhage is a
common form of stroke, resulting in loss or decrease in
sensations and movements of the opposite half of the body
• Most common cause of hemiplegia- thrombosis or rupture of one
of the striate branches of middle cerebral artery which passes
through the anterior perforated substance to supply the internal
capsule.
• Charcot’s artery- one of the lateral striate arteries, largest of the
perforating branches, particularly prone to such pathological
conditions
• Heubner artery- thrombosis of recurrent branch of anterior
cerebral artery results in contralateral paralysis of the face and
upper limbs on account of the involvement of corticonuclear
fibres and adjacent pyramidal fibres for the superior extremity.
49. • Think of a number from 1-9
• Multiply by 9
• Add the individual digits
• Subtract the result by 5
• Think of the corresponding english alphabet
• Think of a country that starts with the alphabet
• Think of an animal that starts with the last alphabet of the
country you thought of
• Think of a fruit with the last alphabet of the animal you thought
of
• Did you think of-
• DENMARK
• KANGAROO
• ORANGE…
• Only 2 % of us think different..
• ‘Think different’- Steve Jobs, Apple