This document provides a summary of the key topics covered in a social psychology lecture, including: 1. An introduction to social psychology and how human behavior is influenced by others. 2. Exploration of the social self and how people develop social identities and play social roles. 3. Examination of social thinking processes like attribution theory, cognitive dissonance, and social comparison. 4. Discussion of prejudices and how stereotypes form despite efforts to reduce them.

1. Social Psychology Lecture 10 Review Semester 2, 2008 Lecturer: James Neill

2. Lecture topics 01. Introduction 02. The Social Self 03. Social Thinking 04. Aggression 05. Prejudice 06. Relationships 07. Groups 08. Prosocial 09. Environmental 10. Review } What? } What can go wrong? } What can go right? } Where are we going?

3. 01. Introduction

4. Human behaviour... in social context. What is social psychology?

5. How the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the... actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (based on Allport, 1935) What is social psychology?

6. Population bottleneck Why does social psychology matter?

7. Sociology vs. Social Psychology

8. Culture Info-based system of common ways of doing things and ideas shared via language Humans are social animals who need to manage tension between self-interest and collective interest. (Nature makes us selfish; Culture helps us to resist selfish impulses)

9. Culture Humans have evolved to participate in culture. Individuals generally need to work to gain social acceptance. Inner emotional and cognitive states help us to connect to others . People get most of what they need from other people.

10. Social brain theory Larger brain is linked to complex social systems (Dunbar, 1993, 1996)

11. Social Relations

12. History Volkerpsychologie and Crowd Mind (mid-late 1800s) Social facilitation (Triplett, 1898) Attitudes (early 20 th C) Split from behaviourism and psychoanalysis. Gestalt theorists (1930s-50s) Post-WW2 studies e.g., Authoritarian personality (Allport), Obedience (Milgram), Roles (Zimbardo).

13. History Attribution theory, cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1960s) European developments e.g., Tajfel (social identity theory) Moscovici (minority influence) Crisis (Late 1960s - early 1970s) Rise of social cognitive perspectives (1970s to now) Alternatives e.g., social constructionism

14. 02. Social Self

15. Domains / Units of Analysis

16. Note: Fuzzy boundaries Self Groups Culture Environ-ment

17. What is the “self”? “ The self is an important tool with which the human organism makes its way through human society and thereby manages to satisfy its needs.”

18. What is the “self”? The psychological self includes: Attitudes Cognitions Emotions Group Memberships (Social Identity) Ideal / Imagined Selves Memories Possessions Self-Beliefs, Self-Concepts, Self-Images Social Roles

19. What is the self? Self-knowledge Self-concept – info about self Interpersonal self Public self Agent self Decision-making, active responding

20. What is the “social self”? Humans are gregarious, group-based creatures. A significant portion of our ‘self’ and its ‘behaviour’ is socially directed and influenced.

21. Purpose of the social self Gain social acceptance Play social roles

22. Self-constructs Self-Esteem Self-Concept Self-Efficacy Self-Congruence illustrate how social psychologists study people’s selves, in cognitive, affective, and behavioural terms.

23. Social Self Evolutionary & adaptational functions Self-complexity Social comparison Social feedback Strategic self-presentation Self-monitoring Self-regulation

24. 03. Social Thinking

25. Social thinking Social psychology was initially influenced by behaviourism . (1930’s-1950’s) By the 1970’s, cognitive psychology lead to greater investigation of social thinking and feeling .

26. Overview Social thinking Attribution theory Cognitive dissonance Self-regulation Social comparison Attitudes Influence & persuasion

27. Social perception Refers to how people: form impressions of, & make inferences about other people.

28. Cognitive miser “ There is ample evidence that when people’s capacity for thinking is already preoccupied, they take even more shortcuts to reduce further need for thought” Bushman & Baumeister, 2008, p. 148) – Brief Version

29. Knowledge structures “ Automatic thinking requires little effort because it relies on knowledge structures”, e.g., Schemas Scripts Stereotypes

30. Framing Context influences interpretation. Changing the frame can change and even reverse interpretation.

31. Attribution Theory “… deals with how the social perceiver uses information to arrive at causal explanations for events”

32. Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to attribute others’ behaviour to enduring dispositions because: Underestimation of the influence of situational factors. Overestimation of the influence of dispositional factors. Extent of the FAE varies by culture.

33. Actor/Observer Bias “ there is a pervasive tendency for actors to attribute their actions to situational requirements, whereas observers tend to attribute the same actions to stable personal dispositions”

34. Self-serving bias Taking credit for success = Self-enhancing bias Denying responsibility for failure = Self-protecting bias

35. Ultimate Attribution Error FAE applied to in- and out- groups, i.e., Bias towards internal attributions for in-group success and external attributions for in-group failures Opposite for out-groups

36. Why Have Attitudes? Help deal with complex world Initial evaluations are immediate and unconscious - helpful in making choices Implicit attitude : Automatic evaluative response Explicit attitude : Conscious evaluative response

37. Mere-exposure effect Tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly Exception - If you dislike something initially, repeated exposure will not change that attitude Attitudes are further influenced by classical and operant conditioning, social learning, and attitudinal polarisation

38. Cognitive Dissonance Unpleasant state when attitude and behaviour are inconsistent  people desire consistency i.e., try to bring their attitude into line with their actions (or their actions into line with their attitudes) There is an even stronger desire to be viewed as consistent by others

39. Attitudes & Behaviour Predictions of behaviour based on attitudes is best when Attitudes are specific Behaviours are aggregated Attitudes are conscious and come to mind easil y

40. Social Influence Normative vs. informational influence Influence/persuastion techniques Minority influence Resisting persuasion

41. 04. Prejudice

42. Prejudice Categorisation Natural human tendency to group objects Social categorisation Sorting people into groups on common characteristics

43. Why Prejudice Exists Tendency to hold stereotypes and prejudices may be innate Content of stereotypes is learned though socialisation People have to work to override stereotyes and prejudice Extra effort leaves people less able to self regulate

44. Why Prejudice Exists Minimal group effect Ingroup favouritism Rationalisation for oppression Self-esteem (through social comparison)

45. Accuracy of Stereotypes Many stereotypes may be based on genuine difference, but then become overgeneralised Heuristics may be fairly accurate, but stereotypes become exaggerated with little factual basis Used to boost self-esteem, oppression, or rationalise status quo

46. Overcoming Stereotypes, Reducing Prejudices Conscious override Increase available information Positive, equal contact Superordinate goals

47. 05. Aggression

48. Aggression “ The intentional infliction of some form of harm on others” (Baron & Byrne, 2000) Expression of aggression is culturally influenced. (Culture offers nonviolent ways of resolving conflicts and problems)

49. Types of aggression Hostile Instrumental Passive Active

50. Theories & Factors of Aggression Inner causes e.g., excitation-transfer, cognitive theories, testosterone Interpersonal causes e.g., social-learning theory External / situational causes e.g., frustration-aggression, relative deprivation, crowd behaviour, intergroup conflict

51. 06. Relationships

52. Relationships Overview Affiliation (the need to belong) Attraction Rejection / exclusion Types Maintaining & ending Sexuality Jealousy

53. The Need to Belong (Affiliation) Intrinsic need for affiliation Harlow’s experiments Affiliation & stress/health (not belonging is bad for you)

54. Attraction Ingratiation Social rewards Reciprocity Playing hard to get Self-monitoring Similarity Propinquity Matching hypothesis Beauty Evolutionary perspectives

55. Love Types of love Passionate vs companionate Sternberg’s triangle of love Passion, Intimacy, Commitment Types of relationships exchange vs. communal attachment styles Schacter’s 2-factor theory (Arousal-Cognition) Hatfield & Walster's 3-factor theory (Culture-Arousal-Cognition)

56. Ending relationships Levinger’s 4 factors (new life, alternative partners, expectation of failure, lack of comittment) Rusult & Zembrodt – 4 stages to failing relationship (loyalty, neglect, voice behaviour, exit behaviour) Duck’s relationship dissolution (intrapsychic, dyadic, social, grave-dressing)

57. 07. Groups & Leadership

58. Groups Overview What is a group? Social facilitation Social loafing Effects of groups on individuals Intergroup conflict Co-operation between groups

59. Leadership Overview Leader? Follower? Power? Leadership theories Genetic Great man theory Trait theory Situational theory – Leadership styles Task- vs. people-oriented Transformational theory Alternatives to leadership Bad bosses

60. 08. Prosocial Behaviour

61. Pro-social Behaviour Overview Pro-social / anti-social behaviour Altruism Cooperation - Dilemmas Forgiveness Who helps? When? Why? Bystander help Impact of receiving help Increasing helping

62. Pro-social Behaviour Theories Genetic/evolutionary e.g., survival, social exchange, egoism Social norms e.g., altruism, principalism, collectivism Learning theory e.g., social exchange, social learning

63. Bystander intervention Cognitive Model - 5 steps (Latane & Darley) Bystander-Calculus Model - 3 stages (Pilliavin et al.) - weigh up costs of helping & not helping Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis (Batson)

64. Personal determinants of helping Personality Competence Gender Attributions Personal norms Mood

65. Interpersonal determinants of helping Attractiveness Similarity Closeness Deservingness Gender

66. 09. Environmental Psychology

67. Environmental Psychology What is it? Negative environmental influences Environmental design Natural environment Evolutionary psychology Biophilia Changing environmental attitudes and behaviour

68. Conclusion

69. Final thoughts What have we explored and learnt? Is it worth knowing? How have we been limited by theory and method? How worthwhile has it been? Feedback