1. B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who pioneered the concept of operant conditioning. He rejected the notion of free will and sought to explain behavior solely based on environmental stimuli and consequences.
2. Skinner developed his theory of operant conditioning which posits that behavior is shaped by its consequences - behaviors that are rewarded tend to be repeated, while behaviors that are punished tend to decrease. He identified positive and negative reinforcement as ways to strengthen behaviors.
3. Skinner had a large influence on psychology with his approach of radical behaviorism which focused only on observable behaviors and their causes, rejecting hypothetical mental constructs. He emphasized shaping behavior through reinforcement and conditioning techniques.
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that uses reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease certain voluntary behaviors. There are three types of operants: neutral operants which neither increase nor decrease a behavior, reinforcers which increase a behavior through positive or negative reinforcement, and punishers which decrease a behavior. Reinforcers and punishers can be positive or negative depending on if something is presented or removed from the environment in response to the behavior.
B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who pioneered the concept of operant conditioning. He received his bachelor's and master's degrees from Harvard University and his PhD in 1931. Skinner studied how behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. He found that behaviors followed by positive reinforcement increase in frequency, while behaviors followed by negative reinforcement or punishment decrease. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explained human behavior as regulated by its consequences and contributed to the development of behaviorism.
John Kelly developed the theory of personal constructs which proposes that individuals perceive and interpret phenomena through constructs which are concepts or ideas used to understand experiences. Personal constructs are bipolar and dichotomous, having two opposite poles. Constructs have properties like range of applicability, focus of applicability, and permeability. There are different types of constructs including pre-emptive, constellatory, and assumptive constructs. Constructs can also be classified as comprehensive or private, main or peripheral, and hard or loose.
This document discusses classical and operant conditioning theories. It provides biographical information on Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, who discovered classical and operant conditioning, respectively. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Operant conditioning is learning through rewards and punishments that reinforce or reduce behaviors. The document explains the key components of each theory, including unconditioned/conditioned stimuli and responses, reinforcement, and punishment.
This document discusses operant conditioning and how it influences learning and behavior. It defines operant conditioning as a method of learning through reinforcement and punishment. Behaviors are strengthened when followed by positive reinforcement or escape from negative reinforcement, and weakened when followed by punishment. The document uses B.F. Skinner's experiments with rats in a Skinner Box as a classic example of how operant conditioning shapes behavior through variable schedules of reinforcement and punishment.
B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who developed the theory of behaviorism and operant conditioning. Operant conditioning looks at how behaviors are influenced by their consequences. Skinner showed that behaviors followed by positive reinforcement, like food rewards, will increase, while behaviors followed by punishment will decrease. He developed a Skinner box to experimentally demonstrate how rats learned behaviors that were reinforced. Operant conditioning principles can be applied to education by reinforcing desired student behaviors, like answering questions, with praise or approval, while ignoring unwanted behaviors.
Albert Bandura developed social cognitive theory, which posits that personality is shaped through the interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment. Some key aspects of social cognitive theory are:
1. Observational learning, where people learn behaviors by watching others, plays a central role.
2. Bandura proposed triadic reciprocal causation, where personal factors, behaviors, and the environment interact bidirectionally to influence each other.
3. Human agency is an important concept, referring to people's ability to intentionally pursue courses of action and exercise control over their lives.
The document discusses social cognitive theory and observational learning. It describes how social cognitive theory expanded on behaviorism by recognizing the role of cognitive and social factors in learning. A key aspect is observational learning, where learning occurs through observing and modeling the behaviors of others. Observational learning involves paying attention, retaining information, being able to reproduce behaviors, and being motivated to do so. Factors like perceived similarity and competence influence which models are paid attention to.
Operant conditioning is a method of learning that uses reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease certain voluntary behaviors. There are three types of operants: neutral operants which neither increase nor decrease a behavior, reinforcers which increase a behavior through positive or negative reinforcement, and punishers which decrease a behavior. Reinforcers and punishers can be positive or negative depending on if something is presented or removed from the environment in response to the behavior.
B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who pioneered the concept of operant conditioning. He received his bachelor's and master's degrees from Harvard University and his PhD in 1931. Skinner studied how behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. He found that behaviors followed by positive reinforcement increase in frequency, while behaviors followed by negative reinforcement or punishment decrease. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explained human behavior as regulated by its consequences and contributed to the development of behaviorism.
John Kelly developed the theory of personal constructs which proposes that individuals perceive and interpret phenomena through constructs which are concepts or ideas used to understand experiences. Personal constructs are bipolar and dichotomous, having two opposite poles. Constructs have properties like range of applicability, focus of applicability, and permeability. There are different types of constructs including pre-emptive, constellatory, and assumptive constructs. Constructs can also be classified as comprehensive or private, main or peripheral, and hard or loose.
This document discusses classical and operant conditioning theories. It provides biographical information on Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, who discovered classical and operant conditioning, respectively. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Operant conditioning is learning through rewards and punishments that reinforce or reduce behaviors. The document explains the key components of each theory, including unconditioned/conditioned stimuli and responses, reinforcement, and punishment.
This document discusses operant conditioning and how it influences learning and behavior. It defines operant conditioning as a method of learning through reinforcement and punishment. Behaviors are strengthened when followed by positive reinforcement or escape from negative reinforcement, and weakened when followed by punishment. The document uses B.F. Skinner's experiments with rats in a Skinner Box as a classic example of how operant conditioning shapes behavior through variable schedules of reinforcement and punishment.
B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist who developed the theory of behaviorism and operant conditioning. Operant conditioning looks at how behaviors are influenced by their consequences. Skinner showed that behaviors followed by positive reinforcement, like food rewards, will increase, while behaviors followed by punishment will decrease. He developed a Skinner box to experimentally demonstrate how rats learned behaviors that were reinforced. Operant conditioning principles can be applied to education by reinforcing desired student behaviors, like answering questions, with praise or approval, while ignoring unwanted behaviors.
Albert Bandura developed social cognitive theory, which posits that personality is shaped through the interaction of personal factors, behavior, and the environment. Some key aspects of social cognitive theory are:
1. Observational learning, where people learn behaviors by watching others, plays a central role.
2. Bandura proposed triadic reciprocal causation, where personal factors, behaviors, and the environment interact bidirectionally to influence each other.
3. Human agency is an important concept, referring to people's ability to intentionally pursue courses of action and exercise control over their lives.
The document discusses social cognitive theory and observational learning. It describes how social cognitive theory expanded on behaviorism by recognizing the role of cognitive and social factors in learning. A key aspect is observational learning, where learning occurs through observing and modeling the behaviors of others. Observational learning involves paying attention, retaining information, being able to reproduce behaviors, and being motivated to do so. Factors like perceived similarity and competence influence which models are paid attention to.
Social learning theories - Personalities theoriesManu Melwin Joy
social learning theory was proposed by Neal E. Miller and John Dollard in 1941. The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura from 1962 until the present. . Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning theory for understanding learning.
Henry Murray was an American psychologist born in 1893 who made significant contributions to personality theory and assessment. He published the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in 1938, a projective test using picture prompts that evaluates personality traits. Murray established the concept of "personology," the scientific study of individual personalities and differences. He formulated five principles of personology focusing on the biological roots of personality, tension reduction, developmental influences, adaptability over time, and the uniqueness of each individual. Murray divided personality into three parts - the id, superego, and ego - and identified 20 basic needs that motivate human behavior, such as achievement, power, and affiliation. His research approached personality as organized by innate motives and needs interacting
The document discusses operant conditioning, which is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner. It states that operant conditioning occurs when behaviors are reinforced or punished, which then increases or decreases the likelihood of those behaviors reoccurring. Specifically, it discusses how Skinner used positive reinforcement by giving rats food for pressing a lever, and negative reinforcement by stopping an electric shock for rats when they pressed a lever. The document then provides examples of how positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment can be applied to behaviors.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
Karen Horney (Theory of Neurosis)
* Background
* Comparison of her theory to Sigmund Freud
* Basic Anxiety
* Neurotic Needs
* The three solutions
* Alienation
Harry Stack Sullivan (Interpersonal Psychoanalytic Theory)
* Background
* Dynamism
* Dynamism of the Self-System
* Personification
* Cognitive Processes
* Tension and its Types
* Energy Transformation
* Stages of Development
* Determiners of Development
* Research on Schizophrenia
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who developed theories about how social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, shape personality. She believed that people whose needs for love and affection are not satisfied in childhood develop basic anxiety and hostility towards their parents. Horney identified three neurotic strategies people use to cope: moving towards people, moving against people, and moving away from people. She argued that normal individuals flexibly use all three strategies, while neurotics rigidly adhere to just one.
Erich Fromm developed a theory of humanistic psychoanalysis that viewed humans as having been separated from nature, leading to feelings of isolation and basic anxiety. His theory blended Freud's emphasis on the unconscious with Marx's view of socioeconomic determinism. Fromm believed humans have five basic needs - relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, identity, and orientation - and that society influences the development of receptive, exploitative, hoarding, marketing, or productive orientations. He also described personality disorders like necrophilia, malignant narcissism, and incestuous symbiosis.
Operant conditioning principles can be applied in various settings to shape behaviors. Reinforcers are used in workplaces to increase productivity and in parenting to encourage good behaviors in children. Once addicted to drugs, continued drug use is reinforced by both the positive effects of the drugs and the negative reinforcement of avoiding withdrawal symptoms.
1. Albert Bandura developed social cognitive theory which expanded on social learning theory to include cognitive factors like self-reflection.
2. In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn aggression through observation and imitation of adult models. Children who observed aggressive adult models were more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors.
3. Social cognitive theory proposes three main ways that humans learn: through direct experience, by observing others, and through self-reflection.
B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning based on his experiments using reward and punishment schedules with animals. He found that behaviors followed by rewarding consequences tended to be repeated, while behaviors followed by punishing consequences tended to decrease. Key aspects of operant conditioning include reinforcement, which increases behaviors; and punishment, which decreases behaviors. Skinner applied these principles to understanding complex learning in humans.
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist who studied physiology and is best known for his work in classical conditioning. Through his experiments with dogs, he discovered that a neutral stimulus could become associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. One famous example was John B. Watson's experiment conditioning a fear response in a boy known as Little Albert by pairing a white rat with a loud noise. Classical conditioning demonstrates how learning can occur through associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response.
Ian Pavlov was a Russian psychologist who won the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work on classical conditioning. Through experiments with dogs, Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus could become associated with a reflexive response through repeated pairing. Specifically, he found that dogs would salivate when food was presented, and would later salivate when a bell was rung, due to its repeated pairing with the food. Teachers can apply this concept of classical conditioning to help students learn classroom expectations, such as quieting down when the teacher approaches the board or turns on a projector.
Erich Fromm was a German-American psychologist who developed humanistic psychoanalysis, which emphasizes sociobiological influences on personality. Fromm believed humanity's separation from nature causes basic anxiety and dichotomies like life/death that people try to resolve. He identified existential needs like relatedness, transcendence, and identity. Productive orientations like working and loving help fulfill needs, while unproductive ones like authoritarianism and destructiveness rely on escape mechanisms. Fromm's theory organizes knowledge but lacks consistency, parsimony, and falsifiability for research.
Karen Horney's theory: Neurotic, Neurotic Needs,Coping Strategies, Self Theory and Womb envy.
Slides are made for educational purpose only.
Reference is included at the end of the slides.
Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli to form automatic responses, while operant conditioning associates behaviors with consequences; B.F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike's law of effect through experiments using operant chambers to study how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviors under schedules like fixed-ratio and variable-interval reinforcement. Operant conditioning principles can be applied in education, sports, and work to modify behaviors through consequences.
Harry Stack Sullivan developed an interpersonal theory of personality development. He believed that personality forms within social relationships and that people develop through intimacy with others. Anxiety can interfere with relationships and healthy development involves experiencing intimacy and lust toward another person. Psychological disorders have interpersonal origins and result from difficulties forming close relationships. Therapy aims to help patients improve their social skills and relationships through developing intimacy with the therapist.
This file accompanies a Youtube clip made on the origins of Operant Conditioning, with specific reference to the Skinner box application of both Positive and Negative reinforcement. See www.ePsychVCE.com for a link to the Youtube clip.
This document outlines Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory. Some key points include:
- Bandura viewed people as agents who can intentionally influence their own experiences through forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness.
- His famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children can learn aggression through observation and imitation of models.
- Observational learning occurs through attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation processes. Factors like characteristics of the model, attributes of the observer, and consequences influence modeling.
- Bandura explored how aggression, inhumane behavior, moral disengagement, and self-efficacy impact social learning and behavior. He showed how social influences shape humans through observational learning.
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviors are strengthened through reinforcement or weakened through punishment. It is based on the behaviorist perspective that emphasizes observable behaviors and the environment's role in influencing behavior. Reinforcement increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated by following it with a stimulus. Punishment decreases the likelihood by introducing an aversive stimulus or withdrawing a positive one after an action.
Biography
Basic Assumptions
Human Needs
Burden of Freedom
Character Orientations
Personality Disorders
Psychotherapy
Methods of Investigation
Critique of Fromm
Concept of Humanity
Skinner's operant conditioning theory posits that behavior is shaped by its consequences rather than driven by internal processes or stimuli. Through experiments using a Skinner box, he found that rats would learn to press a lever when rewarded with food pellets. Their behavior was conditioned and reinforced through positive reinforcement. Operant conditioning is a process of learning whereby behaviors are strengthened if followed by rewarding consequences or weakened if followed by unpleasant consequences, with the goal of increasing or decreasing certain behaviors.
Operant conditioning is a theory of learning that focuses on how environmental interactions influence behavior. B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning which explains that behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. There are four principles of operant conditioning: immediacy of consequences, deprivation and satiation, contingency between behavior and consequence, and effectiveness being determined by size of consequence. Reinforcement and punishment are used to shape behaviors through positive or negative consequences.
Social learning theories - Personalities theoriesManu Melwin Joy
social learning theory was proposed by Neal E. Miller and John Dollard in 1941. The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Canadian psychologist Albert Bandura from 1962 until the present. . Bandura provided his concept of self-efficacy in 1977, while he refuted the traditional learning theory for understanding learning.
Henry Murray was an American psychologist born in 1893 who made significant contributions to personality theory and assessment. He published the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in 1938, a projective test using picture prompts that evaluates personality traits. Murray established the concept of "personology," the scientific study of individual personalities and differences. He formulated five principles of personology focusing on the biological roots of personality, tension reduction, developmental influences, adaptability over time, and the uniqueness of each individual. Murray divided personality into three parts - the id, superego, and ego - and identified 20 basic needs that motivate human behavior, such as achievement, power, and affiliation. His research approached personality as organized by innate motives and needs interacting
The document discusses operant conditioning, which is a theory of learning developed by B.F. Skinner. It states that operant conditioning occurs when behaviors are reinforced or punished, which then increases or decreases the likelihood of those behaviors reoccurring. Specifically, it discusses how Skinner used positive reinforcement by giving rats food for pressing a lever, and negative reinforcement by stopping an electric shock for rats when they pressed a lever. The document then provides examples of how positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment can be applied to behaviors.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY
Karen Horney (Theory of Neurosis)
* Background
* Comparison of her theory to Sigmund Freud
* Basic Anxiety
* Neurotic Needs
* The three solutions
* Alienation
Harry Stack Sullivan (Interpersonal Psychoanalytic Theory)
* Background
* Dynamism
* Dynamism of the Self-System
* Personification
* Cognitive Processes
* Tension and its Types
* Energy Transformation
* Stages of Development
* Determiners of Development
* Research on Schizophrenia
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who developed theories about how social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, shape personality. She believed that people whose needs for love and affection are not satisfied in childhood develop basic anxiety and hostility towards their parents. Horney identified three neurotic strategies people use to cope: moving towards people, moving against people, and moving away from people. She argued that normal individuals flexibly use all three strategies, while neurotics rigidly adhere to just one.
Erich Fromm developed a theory of humanistic psychoanalysis that viewed humans as having been separated from nature, leading to feelings of isolation and basic anxiety. His theory blended Freud's emphasis on the unconscious with Marx's view of socioeconomic determinism. Fromm believed humans have five basic needs - relatedness, transcendence, rootedness, identity, and orientation - and that society influences the development of receptive, exploitative, hoarding, marketing, or productive orientations. He also described personality disorders like necrophilia, malignant narcissism, and incestuous symbiosis.
Operant conditioning principles can be applied in various settings to shape behaviors. Reinforcers are used in workplaces to increase productivity and in parenting to encourage good behaviors in children. Once addicted to drugs, continued drug use is reinforced by both the positive effects of the drugs and the negative reinforcement of avoiding withdrawal symptoms.
1. Albert Bandura developed social cognitive theory which expanded on social learning theory to include cognitive factors like self-reflection.
2. In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn aggression through observation and imitation of adult models. Children who observed aggressive adult models were more likely to exhibit aggressive behaviors.
3. Social cognitive theory proposes three main ways that humans learn: through direct experience, by observing others, and through self-reflection.
B.F. Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning based on his experiments using reward and punishment schedules with animals. He found that behaviors followed by rewarding consequences tended to be repeated, while behaviors followed by punishing consequences tended to decrease. Key aspects of operant conditioning include reinforcement, which increases behaviors; and punishment, which decreases behaviors. Skinner applied these principles to understanding complex learning in humans.
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian scientist who studied physiology and is best known for his work in classical conditioning. Through his experiments with dogs, he discovered that a neutral stimulus could become associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. One famous example was John B. Watson's experiment conditioning a fear response in a boy known as Little Albert by pairing a white rat with a loud noise. Classical conditioning demonstrates how learning can occur through associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a response.
Ian Pavlov was a Russian psychologist who won the 1904 Nobel Prize for his work on classical conditioning. Through experiments with dogs, Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus could become associated with a reflexive response through repeated pairing. Specifically, he found that dogs would salivate when food was presented, and would later salivate when a bell was rung, due to its repeated pairing with the food. Teachers can apply this concept of classical conditioning to help students learn classroom expectations, such as quieting down when the teacher approaches the board or turns on a projector.
Erich Fromm was a German-American psychologist who developed humanistic psychoanalysis, which emphasizes sociobiological influences on personality. Fromm believed humanity's separation from nature causes basic anxiety and dichotomies like life/death that people try to resolve. He identified existential needs like relatedness, transcendence, and identity. Productive orientations like working and loving help fulfill needs, while unproductive ones like authoritarianism and destructiveness rely on escape mechanisms. Fromm's theory organizes knowledge but lacks consistency, parsimony, and falsifiability for research.
Karen Horney's theory: Neurotic, Neurotic Needs,Coping Strategies, Self Theory and Womb envy.
Slides are made for educational purpose only.
Reference is included at the end of the slides.
Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli to form automatic responses, while operant conditioning associates behaviors with consequences; B.F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike's law of effect through experiments using operant chambers to study how reinforcement and punishment shape behaviors under schedules like fixed-ratio and variable-interval reinforcement. Operant conditioning principles can be applied in education, sports, and work to modify behaviors through consequences.
Harry Stack Sullivan developed an interpersonal theory of personality development. He believed that personality forms within social relationships and that people develop through intimacy with others. Anxiety can interfere with relationships and healthy development involves experiencing intimacy and lust toward another person. Psychological disorders have interpersonal origins and result from difficulties forming close relationships. Therapy aims to help patients improve their social skills and relationships through developing intimacy with the therapist.
This file accompanies a Youtube clip made on the origins of Operant Conditioning, with specific reference to the Skinner box application of both Positive and Negative reinforcement. See www.ePsychVCE.com for a link to the Youtube clip.
This document outlines Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory. Some key points include:
- Bandura viewed people as agents who can intentionally influence their own experiences through forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness.
- His famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children can learn aggression through observation and imitation of models.
- Observational learning occurs through attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation processes. Factors like characteristics of the model, attributes of the observer, and consequences influence modeling.
- Bandura explored how aggression, inhumane behavior, moral disengagement, and self-efficacy impact social learning and behavior. He showed how social influences shape humans through observational learning.
Operant conditioning is a type of learning where behaviors are strengthened through reinforcement or weakened through punishment. It is based on the behaviorist perspective that emphasizes observable behaviors and the environment's role in influencing behavior. Reinforcement increases the likelihood a behavior will be repeated by following it with a stimulus. Punishment decreases the likelihood by introducing an aversive stimulus or withdrawing a positive one after an action.
Biography
Basic Assumptions
Human Needs
Burden of Freedom
Character Orientations
Personality Disorders
Psychotherapy
Methods of Investigation
Critique of Fromm
Concept of Humanity
Skinner's operant conditioning theory posits that behavior is shaped by its consequences rather than driven by internal processes or stimuli. Through experiments using a Skinner box, he found that rats would learn to press a lever when rewarded with food pellets. Their behavior was conditioned and reinforced through positive reinforcement. Operant conditioning is a process of learning whereby behaviors are strengthened if followed by rewarding consequences or weakened if followed by unpleasant consequences, with the goal of increasing or decreasing certain behaviors.
Operant conditioning is a theory of learning that focuses on how environmental interactions influence behavior. B.F. Skinner developed operant conditioning which explains that behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences. There are four principles of operant conditioning: immediacy of consequences, deprivation and satiation, contingency between behavior and consequence, and effectiveness being determined by size of consequence. Reinforcement and punishment are used to shape behaviors through positive or negative consequences.
Bridging behaviorism: A new approach to employee engagementHealthFitness
HealthFitness’ Dennis Richling, M.D., chief medical and wellness officer, and Ed Framer, Ph.D., director of health and behavioral sciences, joined Fred Hanna, Ph.D., professor of counselor education, University of Northern Colorado, to discuss a new approach to employee engagement at the 23rd Annual Art & Science of Health Promotion Conference March 20-22, 2013.
Listen to an audio recording of the presentation here: http://healthfitness.com/insights/events/
Este documento describe los servicios de una compañía, incluyendo estudios de mercado, análisis digital, creación de bases de datos, medición de indicadores, satisfacción de clientes y desarrollo de infografías personalizadas. También ofrece estudios sociales cualitativos y cuantitativos sobre generaciones, género y uso de tecnologías de la información a través de análisis de prensa, encuestas, entrevistas y redes sociales.
Device fingerprinting is a new technology that helps advertisers optimize ad budgets by spending less money on bot traffic and scammers. This short presentation explains how it works
Aree Virus. Non si uccide anche così l'architettura. Una riflessione di fine secolo, ma, purtroppo, ancora con spunti attualissimi. Aree ed edifici simbolo di degrado ed abbandono urbano. Può mai esistere un futuro per queste tessere consolidate del mosaico urbano. Il caso di Avellino.
The First IoT JSR: Units of Measurement - DevoXX BE 2015Werner Keil
JSR-363 (The First IoT JSR: Units of Measurement) defines a framework for representing quantities with units in Java. It establishes interfaces and classes for modeling physical quantities with units, checking unit compatibility, and performing arithmetic operations on units. The JSR aims to avoid errors from unit ambiguity and provide type safety when working with quantities in code. It is still in progress with a target completion in 2016.
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The axial skeleton comprises 80 bones located along the body's central axis. It includes the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs. The skull is made up of 22 bones including 8 cranial bones that form the cranium and 14 facial bones. The vertebral column consists of 26 vertebrae that are separated into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. It protects the spinal cord and supports the head. The sternum and 12 pairs of ribs are also part of the axial skeleton, with the ribs attaching to the vertebrae and sternum.
1.6 edward l. thorndike connectionism theoryVan Martija
Edward Thorndike proposed the theory of connectionism, which explained learning as the formation of associations or connections between stimuli and responses through processes like trial and error. He identified three primary laws of learning: the Law of Effect states that responses connected to satisfying consequences are strengthened; the Law of Exercise states that frequently repeated connections are strengthened through practice; and the Law of Readiness states that learning is most effective when the learner is mentally and physically prepared. Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes supported these ideas and influenced modern active learning approaches in education.
Burrus Frederic Skinner was an American psychologist who was a proponent of operant conditioning. He received his BA from Hamilton College and his masters and doctorate from Harvard. He is known for his work studying animal and human behavior through positive and negative reinforcement using devices like the Skinner Box. Some of his contributions include developing schedules of reinforcement and the technique of shaping behaviors. His work showed how behaviors are learned and reinforced through their consequences, which had important implications for understanding human learning and behavior.
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) was an influential American psychologist known as the "father of modern educational psychology." He published around 500 books and articles in his career spanning over 55 years. Thorndike is renowned for developing the Law of Effect in 1905, which states that behaviors followed by satisfactory outcomes become more strongly associated and likely to reoccur. He also made important contributions to the study and measurement of intelligence through his work developing early intelligence tests during World War I.
This document provides an overview of several prominent theories of human development, including:
1. Biological theories proposed by Darwin and Lorenz that emphasize natural selection and imprinting.
2. Learning theories proposed by Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura that explain development through classical and operant conditioning as well as social learning.
3. Psychoanalytic theories proposed by Freud and Erikson that view development as progressing through psychosexual stages and developing virtues at each life stage.
4. Cognitive theories proposed by Piaget and Vygotsky that describe child development as progressing through sensory, preoperational, concrete, and formal operational stages of increasing logical and abstract thought.
Introductory Psychology: Learning Part II (Operant)Brian Piper
lecture 19 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. (psy391@gmail.com) at Willamette University, operant conditioning
Behaviorism is a natural approach to psychology that focuses on observable behavior and environmental influences rather than mental processes. John B. Watson founded behaviorism and believed that human emotion was produced through classical conditioning. He conducted an experiment called "Little Albert" to show that emotional reactions can be conditioned. B.F. Skinner expanded on behaviorism through his concepts of operant conditioning using positive and negative reinforcement and punishment in a controlled chamber called a Skinner box. He believed that behavior is shaped through reinforcement of successive approximations.
The document summarizes several behaviorist theories of learning:
- Classical conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through associations between stimuli and responses. An example is Pavlov's dogs salivating to the sound of a bell after it was paired with food.
- Operant conditioning (Skinner): Learning through consequences that reinforce behaviors. Behaviors are strengthened if they produce positive reinforcement or reduce negative reinforcement.
- Social learning theory (Bandura): Extended Skinner by arguing learning also occurs through observation and imitation of others in a social environment. People can learn behaviors by watching others and processing the situation.
This descriptive ppt on Behaviorism will help to take the knowledge in crux. It includes how the behaviorism came into fame after the fall of Psychology and goals of behaviorism. It includes the brief contribution of Watson and B.F Skinner two leading forces of Behaviorism. It includes classical conditioning, S-R relationship,it also includes operant conditioning. It also states about the criticism of Behaviorism.
BEHAVIORISM. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY PPT.pptxJoanBayangan1
Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors and their environmental causes. It argues that behaviors are learned through classical and operant conditioning, not innate factors. Key theorists include Watson, who established behaviorism, and Skinner, who developed radical behaviorism. Classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with an innate response, while operant conditioning uses reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviors. Social cognitive theory expanded on behaviorism to include cognition and internal mental states. It emphasizes observational learning, where behavior is learned by watching others, and self-efficacy, one's belief in their own abilities. Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrated children learning aggression through observation.
This document provides an overview of behaviorism, a branch of psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and reactions to stimuli. It discusses key theorists like Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner and experiments they conducted on conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with a natural stimulus to create a conditioned response. Operant conditioning uses reinforcement and punishment to shape behaviors. The document also briefly evaluates behaviorism, noting both its scientific advantages and limitations in only considering observable behaviors.
This document provides an overview of learning concepts including classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a response. Operant conditioning explains how behaviors are shaped by their consequences, such as reinforcement. Major figures who studied these concepts include Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. Contemporary views acknowledge cognitive and biological factors in learning. Learning principles have applications in behavior modification, education, sports, and business.
Behavior is defined as the actions and mannerisms of individuals or systems in response to internal or external stimuli. Behavior modification aims to alter behavioral patterns through techniques like positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement strengthens behaviors by rewarding them, while negative reinforcement strengthens behaviors by removing unpleasant stimuli. Punishment weakens behaviors by introducing unpleasant consequences. Behaviorism theories like classical and operant conditioning explain how behaviors are learned and changed through their consequences.
Behaviour is defined as the actions and mannerisms of individuals or systems in response to internal or external stimuli. There are several root causes of behavioural differences, including individual differences, family/environmental factors, and psychological impairments. Behaviour modification aims to alter behaviours through reinforcement techniques and uses positive and negative consequences to encourage good behaviours and discourage bad ones. The two major theories behind behaviour modification are classical conditioning, which associates stimuli with responses, and operant conditioning, where behaviours are modified through reinforcement and punishment.
Behaviorism school of thought in psychologyNadeemShoukat3
Ishallah this video help you to comprehend about behaviorism school of thought, its major thinker, major experiment, advantages and disadvantages and much more
These slides are about different methods and types of learning and basically concerned about classical conditioning. Classical conditioning and its whole process is described here briefly.
Classical and operant conditioning are two theories of learning explained in the document. Classical conditioning deals with involuntary responses and pairing stimuli to elicit responses. Operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors and how reinforcement and punishment modify the likelihood of behaviors. Key figures who developed these theories include Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner. Their work showed how environmental stimuli and consequences shape observable behaviors.
Various views on Human Learning - All 5 Theories Merged.pdfSamruddhi Chepe
Module 2:Various views on human learning (Credit 1, Hours 15, Marks 25)
Objectives: After learning this module the student teacher will be able to -
- compare various views on human learning
- consider various roles of learner and teacher for planning of various learning
situations
Contents
1. Views on human learning with reference to (i) Concepts and principles of each view and
their applicability in different learning situations (ii) Relevance and applicability of
various theories of learning for different kinds of learning situations(iii) Role of learner
and teacher in various learning situations (15)
Behaviourist (conditioning by Pavlov and Skinner in brief),
Cognitivist ( views of Bruner and Ausubel)
Course 4
Learning and Teaching
SNDT Women’s University, Churchgate, Mumbai 20 . 23
Information-processing view(Atkinson Shifrin)
Humanist( Carl Rogers)
Social-constructivist ( Views of Piaget and Lev Vygotski)
Learning involves relatively permanent changes in behavior due to experience. There are three main theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. Pavlov's dog experiment demonstrated this. Operant conditioning involves reinforcing behaviors with consequences to increase their likelihood. Skinner showed this using a Skinner box. Social learning involves observing and imitating others' behaviors and their consequences. Reinforcement strengthens behaviors through rewards or avoidance of punishment.
The following lecture - given at the Colombo Institute for Research and Psychology - covers an introduction to behaviorism, key thinkers, an introduction to classical conditioning, key mechanisms in classical conditioning and some applications including conditioned emotion and drug response.
Behaviorist Theory by Pavlov and Skinner.pptxSamruddhi Chepe
Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through using reinforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape behavior of learners. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped when the use of reinforcement was implemented. Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment. This learning theory states that behaviors are learned from the environment, and says that innate or inherited factors have very little influence on behavior. Pavlov's theory of behaviorism is rooted in the idea that behavior is the result of conditioning. He believed that behavior is learned through the process of classical conditioning, where behavior is shaped through the association of stimuli in the environment. Pavlov's major legacy to behavior therapy was his discovery of "experimental neuroses", Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.[2][3][4][5] Considered the father of Behaviorism, he was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.[6]
Considering free will to be an illusion, Skinner saw human action as dependent on consequences of previous actions, a theory he would articulate as the principle of reinforcement: If the consequences to an action are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger.[7]
Skinner developed behavior analysis, especially the philosophy of radical behaviorism,[8] and founded the experimental analysis of behavior, a school of experimental research psychology. He also used operant conditioning to strengthen behavior, considering the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength. To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber (aka the Skinner box).
B.F. Skinner was an influential American psychologist known for his impact on behaviorism. He developed the theory of operant conditioning, which suggests that behaviors are conditioned through reinforcement and consequences. Key concepts in Skinner's theory include positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, and schedules of reinforcement. Skinner argued that human behavior is shaped entirely by environmental influences through conditioning rather than free will. He developed the Skinner box to study operant conditioning in animals and believed all behavior could be understood in terms of stimuli, responses, and consequences.
This document provides an overview of learning in psychology from several perspectives. It discusses classical and operant conditioning, including their basic principles and examples of how they are applied in everyday life. Classical conditioning involves associating an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a reflexive response with a conditioned stimulus through repeated pairing. Operant conditioning examines how voluntary behaviors are strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment. The document also covers types of learning like shaping behavior through successive approximations and uses of reinforcement schedules.
1. The document discusses different learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory.
2. Classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response, while operant conditioning uses reinforcement and punishment to modify behavior.
3. Social learning theory, proposed by Bandura, suggests that people can learn through observation of others via modeling behaviors.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
5. William Skinner
- A lawyer and
politician
Grace Mange
Burrhus Skinner
- A good Presbyterian,
who took care of the
house and family.
6. Skinner grew up in a
comfortable, happy,
upper-middle class home
where his parents
practiced the values of
temperance, service,
honesty, and hard work.
BIOGRAPHY
7. when Skinner was 2 ½ years old,
Edward was born.
BIOGRAPHY
and died during
Skinner’s first year
at college.
8. YOUNG ADULTHOOD
Skinner experience his first
identity crises when armed with
an undergraduate degree in
English.
B.F. Skinner returned to his
parents’ home hoping to shape his identity
in the world of literature.
BIOGRAPHY
9. BIOGRAPHY
William Skinner reluctantly agreed to allow
and support Fred but in one condition; He
would get a job if his writing career was not
successful.
After 3 months of trying to become a creative
writer, Fred realized that the quality of his work
was poor.
He blamed his parents, their hometown, even
literature itself.
10. BIOGRAPHY
“Dark Year”
- time of identity confusion (Erikson)
- time for trying to discover who he was,
where he was going to get there.
November, 1927
- he decided to abandon literature and study
psychology.
He became determined to be a behaviorist
after reading some of the works of Watson and
Pavlov.
11. BIOGRAPHY 1928
- He became a graduate student at Harvard
University’s psychology department, aged 24.
1931
- completed his PhD
- received a fellowship from the National Research
Council to continue his laboratory research at Harvard.
1933
- Harvard created the Society of Fellows (a
program designed to promote creative thinking among
young intellectually gifted men in the university).
12. BIOGRAPHY
1936
- Skinner began a teaching and research
position at the University of Minnesota and
married
Yvonne Blue
Julie, 1938 Deborah,1944
13. BIOGRAPHY
Minnesota Years
- published his first book , The Behavior of
Organisms (1938).
- interesting ventures:
1. pigeon-guided missile
14. BIOGRAPHY
Pigeon-guided missile
attempt to condition pigeons to make
appropriate pecks on keys that would maneuver
an explosive missile into an enemy target.
1944
- Skinner dramatically demonstrated to
government officials the feasibility of the project
by producing a live pigeon that unerringly
tracked a moving target.
15. BIOGRAPHY
2. Baby tender
an enclosed crib with a
large window and a
continual supply of fresh
warm air.
16. BIOGRAPHY Skinner, still dependent on his father for financial
help. (40 yrs. Old)
1945
- became the chair of Indiana University’s
psychology department.
- wrote Walden Two ( a utopian novel that
portrayed a society in which problems were solved
through behavioral engineering.
1948
- He returned to Harvard where he taught mostly
in the College of Education.
17. BIOGRAPHY
1964
- he retired from teaching but retained
faculty status. (60 yrs. Old)
1974
- retired as a professor of Psychology but
continued working until his death on,
August 18, 1990
- B.F. Skinner died aged 86 in Cambridge,
Massachusetts from complications resulting
from leukemia.
19. SCIENTIFIC
BEHAVIORISM
Skinner insisted that human behavior should
be studied scientifically.
Skinner disagreed in postulating a
hypothetical internal mental function.
“People do not eat because they are hungry.”
-Hunger is an inner condition not directly
observable.
20. SCIENTIFIC
BEHAVIORISM
Cosmology – concern with causation.
To be scientific, psychology must avoid
internal mental factors and confine itself to
observable physical events.
Philosophy of SCIENCE
“Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation
of behavior but not an explanation of its causes”.
21. SCIENTIFIC
BEHAVIORISM
Characteristics of SCIENCE
Science is cumulative.
Science is an attitude that places value on
empirical observations.
Three components of scientific attitude:
rejects authority
demands intellectual honesty
suspends judgment
Science is a search for order and lawful
relationships.
22. STRUCTURE OF
PERSONALITY
He focused on modifiable behavior and de-
emphasized the biological or genetic
determinants.
CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning(respondent
conditioning)
Operant conditioning(Skinnerian
conditioning)
23. Classical
conditioning
a response is drawn out of the organism
by specific, identifiable stimulus.
a conditioned stimulus is paired with an
unconditioned stimulus a number of times
until it is capable of bringing about a
previously unconditioned response.
(conditioned response)
24. Classical
conditioning
reflexive behaviors:
- light shined in the eye stimulates the
pupil to contract,
- food place on the tongue brings about
salivation,
- pepper in the nostrils results in the
sneezing reflex.
responses are unlearned involuntary, and
common not only to the species but across
species as well.
25. Classical
conditioning
The Case of Little
Albert
Conditioned
stimulus: white rat
Unconditioned
stimulus: fear of the
loud sudden sound
26. Operant
refer to any "active behavior that
operates upon the environment to
generate consequences“
In other words, Skinner's theory
explained how we acquire the range of
learned behaviors we exhibit each and
every day.
27. Operant
conditioning
a type of learning in which
reinforcement, which is contingent upon
the occurrence of a particular response,
increases the probability that the same
response will occur again.
Reinforcement
- any condition within the environment
that strengthens behavior.
28. Operant
conditioning
behavior is made more likely to recur when
it is immediately reinforced.
“if the occurrence of the operant is followed
by presentation of reinforcing stimulus, the
strength is increased”
if a response is followed by a reward, the
response will be strengthened;
or if you want to strengthen a response of a
behavior pattern, reward it.
29. Operant
conditioning
Example:
when a lab rat presses
a blue button, he receives
a food pellet as a reward,
but when he presses the
red button he receives a
mild electric shock.
30. As a result, he learns to press the
but avoid the red button.
Operant
conditioning
31. Operant
conditioning
Shaping
- a procedure in which the experimenter
or the environment first rewards gross
approximations of the behavior, then closer
approximations, and finally the desired
behavior itself.(Fiest)
- a process in which reinforcement is used
to create new responses out of old ones.
- a gradual molding of behavior through
reward.
33. Operant
conditioning
Instances:
A. Antecedent
- refers to the environment or
setting in which the behavior takes
place.
B. Behavior
- response must be within the
person’s repertoire and must not be
interfered with by competing or
antagonistic behaviors such as
34. Operant
conditioning
Instances:
C. Consequences
- the reward
Operant Discrimination
- Skinner’s observation that an organism, as a
consequence of its reinforcement history, learns to
respond to some elements in the environment.
- a function of environmental variables and
organism’s previous history of reinforcement.
35. Types of responses
Neutral operants
- responses from the environment that neither
increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being
repeated.
Reinforcers
- Responses from the environment that increase the
probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can
be either positive or negative.
Punishers
- Responses from the environment that decrease the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment
weakens behavior.
36. Operant
conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
- a response to a similar environment
in the absence of previous reinforcement.
- the tendency for the
conditioned stimulus to evoke similar
responses after the response has been
conditioned.
38. Operant
conditioning
Positive
reinforcement
- strengthens a
behavior by
providing a
consequence an
individual finds
rewarding.
Positive
reinforcer
- Any stimulus
that, when added to
a situation,
increases the
probability that a
given behavior will
occur.
39. Operant
conditioning
Negative
Reinforcement
-removal of an
unpleasant
reinforcer can also
strengthen
behavior.
Negative
reinforcer
- Any stimulus
that, when remove
from a situation,
increases the
probability that the
immediately
preceding behavior
will occur.
40. Operant
conditioning
Punishment
- opposite of reinforcement
- presentation of an aversive stimulus
or the removal of a positive one.
Effects:
supress behavior
Ex. If the boy teases his younger sister,
his parents can make him stop by
spanking him.
41. Operant
conditioning
conditioning of a negative feeling
-If the pain of spanking is strong enough, it will
instigate a response (crying) that is incompatible
with the behavior of teasing a younger sibling.
spread of its effects
- The boy may simply learn to avoid his younger
sister, stay away from his parents, or develop
negative feelings toward the paddle or the place
where the paddling occurred.
42. Operant
conditioning
Conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcers)
- those environmental stimuli that are not by
nature satisfying but become so because they are
associated with such unlearned (primary
reinforcers) as food, water, sex, or physical
comfort.
Generalized reinforcer
- conditioned reinforcer that has been
associated with several primary reinforcers.
Ex. Money
43. Operant
conditioning
Schedules of Reinforcement
continuous schedules
- the organism is reinforced for every
response.
- type of schedule increases the frequency
of a response but is an efficiency use of the
reinforcer.
44. Operant
conditioning
intermittent schedules (partial schedules)
- the reinforcement of an organism on only
certain selected occurrences of a response;
opposed to a continuous schedule in which the
organism is reinforced for every correct trial.
45. Operant
conditioning
Ratio
- amount of responses
Interval
- time
Fixed
- consistent
Variable
- variation
Fixed-Ratio
Fixed- Interval
Variable- Ratio
Variable -Interval
46. Operant
conditioning
Basic Intermittent Schedules:
Fixed-ratio schedule
- the organism is reinforced intermittently
according to the number of responses it makes.
-Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior
occurs a specified number of times. One
reinforcement is given after every so many
correct responses (after every 5th response).
Ex. A child receives a star for every five words
spelt correctly.
48. Operant
conditioning
Variable-ratio schedule
- the organism is reinforced after the nth
response on the average.
- Behavior is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of times.
Ex. gambling or fishing
(Playing slot machines) The machine is set
to pay off at a certain rate, but the ratio must be
flexible, that is, variable, to prevent players from
predicting payoffs.
50. Operant
conditioning
Fixed-interval schedule
- the organism is reinforced for the first
response following a designated period of time.
- One reinforcement is given after a fixed
time interval providing at least one correct
response has been made.
Ex. being paid by the hour, or would be every 15
minutes (half hour, hour, etc.)
52. Operant
conditioning
Variable-interval schedule
- the organism is reinforced after the lapse
of random periods of time.
- reinforcement is given after an
unpredictable amount of time has passed
Ex. self-employed person being paid at
unpredictable times.
54. Operant
conditioning
Four Reasons why responses can be lost:
a) passage of time
b) interference of preceding or subsequent
leaning
c) punishment
d) cause of lost learning or EXTINCTION
- Defined as the tendency of a previously
acquired response to become progressively
weakened upon nonreinforcement.
55. Operant
conditioning
Operant Extinction
- takes place when an experimenter
systematically withholds reinforcement of a
previously learned response until the
probability of that response diminishes to
zero.
57. Operant
conditioning
Natural selection
- we are shaped by contingencies of
survival.
Cultural Evolution
Selection is responsible for those
cultural practices that have survived.
58. Operant
conditioning
Inner States
Drives
- the effect of deprivation and satiation
and the corresponding probability
that the organism will respond.
Emotions
Purpose and Intention
59. Operant
conditioning
Complex behavior
Creativity – result of random or accidental
behaviours that happen to be rewarded.
Dreams
Higher Mental Processes
- Thinking, problem solving, and reminiscing
are covert behaviors that take place within the
skin but not inside the mind. As behaviors, they
are amenable to the same contingencies of
reinforcement as overt behaviors.
60. Control of Human Behavior
Methods of social control:
a. Operant conditioning
b. describing contingencies
c. Deprivation and satiation
d. Physical restraint
61. 2. Self-Control
• the contingencies of self-control
do not reside within the individual
and cannot be freely chosen.
62. 2. Self-Control
Techniques:
physical aids
- Such as tools, machines, and financial
resources
Ex.
A person may take extra money when
going shopping to give herself the opinion
of impulse buying.
63. 2. Self-Control
Techniques:
changing environmental stimuli
Ex.
A student wanting to concentrate on his
studies can turn off a distracting a
television set.
64. 2. Self-Control
Techniques:
arranging the environment to allow
escape from aversive stimuli
Ex.
A woman can set an alarm clock so
that the aversive sound can be stopped only
by getting out of bed to shut off the alarm.
66. 2. Self-Control
Techniques:
Doing something else
Ex.
An obsessive woman may count repetitious
patterns in wallpaper to avoid thinking about
previous experiences that would create guilt.
67. The Unhealthy Personality
A. Counteracting Strategies
People counteract through:
- escape
People withdraw from the
controlling agent either physically or
psychologically.
68. The Unhealthy Personality
A. Counteracting Strategies
- revolting
People rebel through vandalizing
public property, tormenting teachers,
verbally abusing other people, etc.
69. The Unhealthy Personality
A. Counteracting Strategies
- passively resisting
Skinner believed that passive resistance is
most likely to be used when escape and revolt
failed.
Ex.
A child with homework to do finds dozen
excuses why it cannot be finished.
70. The Unhealthy Personality
B. Inappropriate behaviors
excessive vigorous behavior
excessive restrained behavior
blocking of reality
defecting self-knowledge
self-punishment
71. Skinner was not a
psychotherapist, and he even
criticized psychotherapy as being
one of the major obstacles to a
scientific study of human behavior
in a therapeutic setting.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Editor's Notes
Determinist philosophy: a theory or doctrine that acts of the will (see 2will 4a), occurrences in nature, or social or psychological phenomena are causally determined by preceding events or natural lawsb : a belief in predestination
Environmentalist-
when a teacher tells a student she cannot go out for recess if she keeps interrupting the class.
In operant conditioning, stimulus generalization explains how we can learn something in one situation and apply it to other similar situations.
For example, imagine that parents punish their son for not cleaning his room. He eventually learns to clean up his messes to avoid punishment. Instead of having to relearn this behavior at school, he applies the same principles he learned at home to his classroom behavior and cleaned up his messes before the teacher could punish him.
In operant conditioning, stimulus generalization explains how we can learn something in one situation and apply it to other similar situations.
For example, imagine that parents punish their son for not cleaning his room. He eventually learns to clean up his messes to avoid punishment. Instead of having to relearn this behavior at school, he applies the same principles he learned at home to his classroom behavior and cleaned up his messes before the teacher could punish him.
Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
For example, imagine that parents punish their son for not cleaning his room. He eventually learns to clean up his messes to avoid punishment. Instead of having to relearn this behavior at school, he applies the same principles he learned at home to his classroom behavior and cleaned up his messes before the teacher could punish him.
Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again.
In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.
Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.
Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.
Money because it is associated with food, shelter, and other primary reinforcers.
An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs, e.g. every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered and then food delivery is shut off.
Response rate is SLOW
Extinction rate is FAST
a pellet is delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery is shut off.
Cultural Evolution
-people do not observe particular practces in order that the group will be more likely to survive , they serve them because groups that induced their members to do so, survived and transmittd them.
Drives
To deprive a person of food increases the likelihood of eating, to satiate that person, decreases the likelihood.
Satiate-satisfy
Emotions
Those behaviors followed by delight, joy, pleasure and other pleasant emotions tend to be reinforced thereby increasing the probability that this behaviors would recur in life of that individual.
Purpose and Intention
- a felt,ongoing purpose may itself be reinforcing.
Ex. If you believe that your purpose for jogging is to feel bettter and live longer, then this thought acts as reinforcing stimulus.
- a person may intend to see a movie Friday evening because viewing similar films has been reinforcing. At the time the person intends to go to the movie,she feels a physical condition within the body and labels it as intention.
physically felt stimuli within the organism.
The fact that some people are more creative than others is due both to differences in genetic endowment and to experiences that have shaped their creative behavior.
The fact that some people are more creative than others is due both to differences in genetic endownment and to experiences that have shaped their creative behavior.
Unconscious behavior.
Behavior is labeled unconscious when people no longer think about it because it has been suppressed through punishment
Dreams
dream behavior is reinforcing when repressed sexual or aggressive stimli are allowed expression.
Higher mental process- refers to the human ability to take knowledge and learning and use it create new things, ideas and concepts.Endowment-gift
Higher Mental Processes
Skinner admitted that human thought is the most difficult of all behaviors to analyze , but potentially at least, it can be understood as long as one does not resort to a hypothetical fiction as “mind”.\
Ex. When a woman has misplaced her car keys,she searches for it,because similar searching behavior has been previously reinforced.
1. Social Control
The laws of a nation, the rules of an organization, and the customs of a culture transcend any one individual’s means of counter control and serve as powerful controlling variables in the lives of individual members.
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-Operant conditioning
- describing contingencies
Deprivation and satiation
Physical restraint-something under control or within limits.
As people can alter the variables in another person’s environment, so they can manipulate the variables within their own environment and thus exercise some measure of self-control.
Such as tools, machines, and financial resources to alter their environment
People can change their environment thereby increasing the probability of the desired behavior.
People can change their environment so that they can escape from an aversive stimulus only by producing the proper response.
People can take drugs especially alcohol, as a means of self-control.
placid.-calm
People can do something else in order to avoid behaving in an undesirable fashion.
Skinner viewed Unhealthy Personality as means of coping with excessive social control.
Social control and self control sometimes produce Counteracting Strategies and inappropriate behaviors..
When social control is excessive, People can counteract from it by:
Escaping from It.
-with defensive strategy of ecape,
- People who counteract by escape find it difficult to become involved in intimate personal relationships, tend to be mistrustful of people, and prefer to live lonely livesof noninvolvement.
People who revolt against societys controls behave more actively , counterattacking the control agent.
People who counteract control through passive resistance are more irritating to the controllers than those who rely on escape.
The conspicuous feature of passive resistance is “stubbornness”.
Inappropriate behaviors follows from self-defeating techniques of counteracting social control or from unsuccessful attempts at self-control,