This document provides an overview of nuclear power, including:
- Nuclear power currently supplies about 8% of total US energy needs and 20% of electricity through 104 operating reactors.
- Key terminology related to nuclear fuels, radioactive decay, and the nuclear fission process are defined.
- The fission of Uranium-235 is described as releasing large amounts of energy through splitting the atom and ejecting neutrons.
- Commercial nuclear reactors, including pressurized water reactors and boiling water reactors, are discussed along with the nuclear fuel cycle.
- Performance metrics for US nuclear plants show high capacity factors around 90% in recent years. Operating costs are competitive with fossil fuels.
- Global nuclear power policy and expansion
A Technology Review of Electricity Generation from Nuclear Fusion Reaction i...IJMER
In this review paper, we have tried to revisit the basic concept of nuclear fusion and the recent thrust that has been witnessed in the recent times towards power generation from it . In fusion we get the energy when two atoms fused together to form one atoms. With current technology the reaction most readily feasible is between the nuclei of the deuterium (D) and tritium (T). Each D-T releases 17.6 MeV of energy. The use of nuclear fusion plant will substantially will reduce the environmental impacts of increasing world electricity demands. Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for future generation but it also presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering
challenges
A Technology Review of Electricity Generation from Nuclear Fusion Reaction i...IJMER
In this review paper, we have tried to revisit the basic concept of nuclear fusion and the recent thrust that has been witnessed in the recent times towards power generation from it . In fusion we get the energy when two atoms fused together to form one atoms. With current technology the reaction most readily feasible is between the nuclei of the deuterium (D) and tritium (T). Each D-T releases 17.6 MeV of energy. The use of nuclear fusion plant will substantially will reduce the environmental impacts of increasing world electricity demands. Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of energy for future generation but it also presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering
challenges
The revival and transformation of Europe’s largest onshore oilfield; the Pato...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: The revival and transformation of Europe’s largest onshore oilfield; the Patos-Marinza field
Leonidha Çobo, General Manager, Bankers Petroleum Albania Ltd
The revival and transformation of Europe’s largest onshore oilfield; the Pato...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: The revival and transformation of Europe’s largest onshore oilfield; the Patos-Marinza field
Leonidha Çobo, General Manager, Bankers Petroleum Albania Ltd
CILESIA E AJRIT NE AMBIENTET E BRENDESHME
Studimi i mirëqënies termike nuk mund te jete i shkeputur nga ajoe e
cilësisë së ajrit në brendësi të ambienteve të rrethuara. Vëzhgimi i
sëmundjeve në dukje (sindroma të ndërtesës së sëmurë) të çuditshme në
kushte të caktuara ka çuar në lindjen e një linje tjetër studimi që i
referohet cilësisë kimike – fizike të ajrit qe, sot njihet si IAQ (Indoor Air Quality-Cilësia e Ajrit të Brendshëm). Materialet përshtatura për ndërtime, mobiljet, gazrat e përdorur në impiante, të gjithë këto prodhojnë substanca avulluese organike ( Volatile Organic Compound, VOC– Përzierje Organike Avulli) që, në përqëndrim të pakontrolluar mund të sjellin sëmundje të natyrave dhe rrezikshmërive të ndryshme.
TREGUESIT E CILËSISE SË AJRIT
PROÇESET PSIKROMETRIKE
RRL
Ngarkesa Ftohëse
CENTRALET FRIGORIFERIKE
Metodat e permasimit te tubave te ajrit
Nuclear energy & its Pros and cons and disasters.Sunesh Malik
A detailed presentation on Nuclear reactions - fission & fusion and how they are used to form energy. Pros and cons of Nuclear energy and perminent examples.
Albania an important energy hub for the Southern Gas Corridor Realistic over...Albania Energy Association
Albania an important energy hub for the Southern Gas Corridor
Realistic overview of the Albanian and West Balkan
Erlet Shaqe
Co-Founder and Chairman of AEA
aea@aea-al.org
EU Gas Demand
Composition of the European gas supply
Existing and planned import pipelines to Europe
Natural gas demand on the Balkans
The Balkan Gas Hub
The Albania/Balkan region
Regional primary energy production WB
Natural Gas Role in the Albanian Energy Balance
Ionian – Adriatic Pipeline
TAP is considered important for Albania
Albania Natural Gas Forecast
Realistic potential area for developing the gas transmission and distribution in Albania
Underground Gas Storage potentials of Albania.
*Credits AEA-Albania Energy Association
Albania investments and Hydropower development 2017
The Albania Energy Association represents the Albania energy industry, covering all renewable, power, heat and fuels.
Albania Country of Opportunities .
Presentation: Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) – The European leg of the Southern Gas Corridor
Shkelqim Bozgo, Country Manager for Albania, Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP)
Presentation: Overall analysis of the onshore sector of Albania and current developments
Dritan Spahiu, Director of Policies and Development of Hydrocarbons, Ministry of Energy and Industry
How Albanian legislation facilitates the exploration and development of hydro...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: How Albanian legislation facilitates the exploration and development of hydrocarbons
Dael Dervishi, Executive Director, National Agency of Natural Resources (AKBN)
vercoming challenges in the exploration of Albania’s high potential carbonate...Albania Energy Association
Presentation: Overcoming challenges in the exploration of Albania’s high potential carbonate structures
Peter Sider, Vice President, Engineering, Operations and Business Development, Petromanas
Presentation: The role of Southern Gas Corridor for energy security of Europe
Ilkin Aslanov, Executive Assistant to SOCAR President Advisor, SOCAR, Azerbaijan
Presentation: Environmental services for the oil and gas industry
Giannis Karakolis, North Greece Director, POLYECO S.A.
Simon Geragthy, Drilling Waste Management Expert, POLYECO S.A
Presentation: Concessions and the legal framework in Energy
Etleva Kondi, Director of Concessions, Procurement and Privatisation, Ministry of Energy and Industry
Presentation: Strengthening integration on Energy Community and investment opportunities
Lorenc Gordani, Professor of EU Law and Project Director, ACERC
Presentation: The refining sector of Albania
Christophe Darbord, Chief Executive Officer, Armo Refinery
Presentation: What is the energy investment outlook in Albania for 2020?
Entela Çipa, Advisor to the Minister of Energy and Industry
Presentation: Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative - EITI in Albania
Dorina Çinari, Director, Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) Albania
Presentation: The National Economic Council; Fostering Business-Government dialogue
Elona Varfi, COO, National Economic Council (NEC)
Keynote Presentation from the Ministry of Energy and Industry - Electricity Directorate
Agim Bregasi, Director of Policies and Development of Electricity, Ministry of Energy and Industry
Presentation: An overview of Albania’s greatest energy source - Hydropower
Aas Agnar, Director of Governmental Affairs, Devoll Hydropower, Albania
Presentation: An overview of the mining sector in Albania
Mehmet Hasalami, Policy and Development Directorate of Mines, Ministry of Energy and Industry
Transporti me litare, perfshine ato lloje te transporti ne te cilen objekti qe transportohet c’vendoset me ndihmen e nje litari. Kjo eshte konceptuar ne terheqjen e mjetit mbartes me anen e litarit, pergjate udhes se tij, ose shtriries se tij. Historikisht tipike, ky lloj transporti perfaqesonte levizjet e mjeteve lundruese, mbi lumenj ose kanale lundruese. Sot ky lloj transporti (lumenj lundruese) eshte gjeneruar ne forma te ndryshme, sic do ta shohim ne leksionet e meposhteme. Peshen kryesore ne kete lloj transporti e ze transporti me teleferik dhe ai me ashensore, (pa permendur makinat ngritese-transportuese). Transporti me terheqje rreshqanthi, pergjate tokes, eshte pak i perhapur. (Ekzistojne studime te cilat tentojne te perfshijne kete lloj transporti, te permendur ne fund, ne formen e linjave me shina, si nje forme e transportit urban ne qytetet e medha dhe me infrastrukture te dobed). Ne ne leksionin tone do te trajtojme transportin me teleferik, dhe ai me ashensore, si dy forma transporti me mundesi perhapje ne Shqiperi. Per transportin me makina peshengritese-transportuese, nuk do ti trajtojme, per specifikat e vecanta te tyre, si dhe per detyren qe ne kemi vene ne lenden tone, Transportin publik
Kerkesa per parkim
Karakteristika e problemeve te transportit
Parkimi eshte nje aspekt i rendesishem i transportit qe ndihmon (pranon) ne praktike levizjen e automjeit. Ne qendrat urbane politika e vendqendrimeve te inspirohet nga kritere dhe objektiva te ndryshme , por ne cdo rast p[ermban nje total racionale e bazuar ne njohjen e ofertes ne veprim dhe kerkeses me te gjitha kuptimet sasiore e cilesore. Vleresimi i ofertes eshte nje problem i nje vezhgimi te paster statistikore ndersa kerkesa varion ne hapsire dhe ne kohen dhe mbi gjithshka ne sjelljen e perdoruesave ne lidhjen me politiken e pergjitheshme dhe ne vecanti me vete politiken e vendqendrimeve. Ne kete kapitull do te mundohemi te ndertojme tek disa modele te vleresimit te kerkeses, ne vecanti tek modeli gravitacional , dhe do te dallohen disa parametra qe bejne matjen e kerkeses per parkim.
Po te levizjen per sherbim transporti si nje rryme fluidi (ajri/lengu), dhe infrastrukturen si nje labirinth tubash, me pike fillimi, mbarimi, si dhe interseksione te ndryshme, ku neper kete sistem tubash kalon fluidi ne fjale. Eshte e kuptueshme qe per kontrollin ose komandimin e rastit, te vendosen disa elemente konstruktive, te cilet disiplinojne kalimin e fluidit neper nje, ose disa tuba te vecante, ose te lidhur ne njefare sistemi. Keshtu me kete lloj perfytyrimi qe ne po krijojme, mund ta njehsojme levizjen kaotike neper infrastrukture, te perdoruesave te mjeteve (shofere transporti mallrash, ose pasagjeresh, ose qytetare perdorues te mjeteve private, te cilet levizin neper infrastrukturen ekzistuese, per te realizuar nje cvendosje nga nje pozicion ne nje tjeter). Ne q. se vazhdojme te krahasojme situacionin e mesiper, ne llidhje me nje fluid vleresohen parametrat cilesor te tij si:, temperaturat dhe vetit e fizike te tij, vizkoziteti, pasha specifike, shpejtesia etj. Te cilat vleresojne levizjen e fluidit ne keto tubacione. Ne nje sistem transporti levizja e perdoruesave te infrastruktures ne nje intinerar mund te vleresohet nga disa parametra ose karkateristikat e fluksit te perdoruesave, te cilat mund te grupojme 3 faktore qe influencojne direkt per kete fenomen, ose levizje. Mjeti-drejtuesi-ambjenti, te tre keto grupime jane elmente perberes dhe influencues ne cdo lloj levizje mjetesh ne te gjithe infrastrukturen.
Ne c’do projekt transporti, ne aspektin e trajtimit te skemes klasike, sic quhet teknologjia e transportit (ai i transportit te objektit nga nje vend ne nje tjeter),.kemi kete perberje ne procesin teknologjik :
Levizja e objektit (mall ose njerez) me mjetin mbartes. Ne kapitujt e mesiperm ne i kemi permendur keto lloj mjetesh te cilet percaktojne dhe llojin e transportit, konkretisht kane keto emertime:
• transporti automobilistik (mjeti eshte automobili)
• transporti detare e lumore (mjeti eshte lundra, varka)
• transporti hekurudhore (mjeti eshte vagoni i terhequr me lokomotive )
• transporti airore (mjeti eshte aeroplani, helikopteri, balona, )
• transporti me litare (mjeti eshte teleferiku, ashensori, ose c’do makine ngritese transportuese)
Nganjehere kerkohet te parashikohet nje perspektive e zhvillimit te transportit, ose te ristrukturohet ne drejtim te permiresimit te parametrave, nje sistemi transporti. Keshtu, mund dhe duhet te behen, ridimensionimet gjenerale te modeleve matematikore, ose te relacioneve matematikore te bashkangjitura keto projektit te sistemit te transportit. Sa me siper, mund te shprehim ne forme te pergjitheshme :
Tij* = ( fk1,fk2,...fkn )= f(A,B,C,...,M) ku :
T fluksi i spostimeve ndaj 2 zonave i-j dhe me karakteristikat e ketij fluksi fk1,..fkn. te cilat japin funksionet relative A,B,C,... per sistemin e transportit.
Eshte e domosdoshme te sqarojme se, ne evolucionin e kerkeses per transport, futen parametra me te dukshme, ndersa te tjerat nuk perfillen, per vete natyren diskrete, te ketyre rasteve, ky fakt e ben qe, here pas here te rishikohen vleresimet, per zgjidhjen e sistemit kzistues, (sepse faktoret ndryshojne, si koha/ kosto/ distanca e levizjes me kemb/ parkimi/ komoditeti etj.). Ne perdorimin e modelit matematik, per nje sistem transporti, praktikisht behet nje thjeshtim i realitetit, gje qe zgjidhjet optimale duhen te merren duke i permiresuar here pas here parametrat e nje sistemi transporti, ne perputhje me kushtet aktualehere.
Si duhet ta shikojme/studjojme rrealisht nje statistike ne fushen e transportitAlbania Energy Association
Elementi baze ne ndertimin e nje projekti transporti eshte analiza e kerkes-ofert per transport. Kjo shpesh vjen nga verejtjet, ose pamjat direkte ne terren, nga menyra se si sillen ose levizin njerezit apo mallrat. Ashtu si dhe ne vleresimet e tjera per terrenin, edhe ketu kemi nje logjike te perafert, e dalluar, si me poshte:
1) Niveli i sherbimit mbi infrastrukturen ekzistuese, kjo ka te beje me grumbullimin e te dhenave rreale, statistikore mbi infrastrukturen ekzistuese, si dhe kerkesen per transport, apo sherbimet e transportit, si dhe pyetjet ose ceshtjet te tjera, qe lindin ne kete bashkeveprim kerkese-oferte
2) Modelimi simulues i nje sistemi, ne te cilen jane parashikuar vleresimet tekniko-ekonomike, nder te tjerat dhe demografike, social-ekonomike, urbanistike, etj. Si kane ndikuar ose vijuar keto elemente, gjate shfrytezimit ?
3) Treguesit Financiare, si kane qene dhe si eshte bilanci financiare i ketij sherbimi, dinamika e tij, si dhe ndonje alternative e tij, ne pasqyren e kostove e te rendimentit
Per ndertimin e nje projekt transporti, duhet detyrimisht te merren ne konsiderate shume elemente, ose kushte, te cilat konvertohen ne nje bashkesi ndervaresie e quajtur Modeli i sistemit te transportit, ky model eshte i afte ti simuloje keto kushte apo elemente, te projektit duke ne dhene rezultatet respektive. Sa me siper, nje projekt per nje sistem transporti, duhet te ece neper keto faza logjike:
Individualizimi i objeketve qe kerkojne levizje (kerkesa per transport)
Analiza sasiore e sistemit te transportit aktual (ose per disa sisteme)
Ndertimi i nje model varesie, qe perfaqeson nje sitem transporti, i cili eshte ne gjendje te funksionoje me te dhenat (dati) aktuale, si edhe me parametrat e vlerave te prespektives, ne lidhje me kete sistem qe po projektojme, se bashkeu me sistemet e tjere konkurues
Pergjithesime
Nje nder problemet qe e veshtiresojne shperndarjen, shtririen e transportit te mallrave mbi rruge, eshte koha e madhe jo levizese e mallit, ne pikat e nderthuries se levizjeve (grumbullimin, shperndarjen, vazhdim levizjeje te mallit ne destinacion) e cila presupozon kohen e perpunimit te mallit. Si dhe siperfaqet e disponueshme per kete kohe ne keto pika te nderthurjes se levizjes e te perpunimit te mallrave. Keshtu mga viti 1930-40 filloj nje koncep i ri “unifikimi i njesive te ngarkesave” kjo do te thote qe menyra te ambalazhimit te jete e paraqykyar qe ne projektim si nje element ne teknologjine e organizimit te transportit te objektit, kjo gje solli qe:
Elementi baze ne ndertimin e nje projekti transporti eshte hapesira fizike e shtrirejes se aktivitetit te sistemit te transportit, kjo per faktin e kalimeve ose te ndersjelles reciproke, te lelementeve teknike e politike te ketyre siperfaqeve. Per kete te kujtojme nje fakt te thjeshte dhe shume domethenes, ne shtrirjen e linjave nderkokmbetare te hekurudhes, dikur jo te gjitha shtetet, kishin standartin e distancave te shinave te barabarte, pra nuk rrealizohej teknikisht kalimi i vagonit te trenit nga nje shtet tek tjeti, (pasi nuk i kishin te njejta distancen e shinave), sot ky element nuk egziston (eshte eleminiur me kohe), por ekziston ndryshimi i tensionit elektrik, ne rrjetin e fuqise, per linjat hekurudhore te shteteve te ndryshme. (sot ky problem eleminohet duke ndrushuar lokomotiven, pra artificialisht krijohet ndalesa). Ne nje sistem transporti urban, siperfaqet ose zonat e hapesirave, kane rendesi te shikohen ne aspektin cilesor te tyre, nder te cilat mund te permendim, gjendja social-ekonomike e siperfaqes, prezenca e qendrave te medha tregtare e kulturore, destinacioni i aktivitetit te siperfaqes (aktiviteti kryesore i saj). etj. Por hapsira e territorit te referimit, mund te jete dytesore, ne kuptimin e rendesise se nivelit te transportit (pra nuk merret ne konsiderate karakteristikat e zones ne te cilen operohet). Hapsirat i dallojme nga elementi i pare i tyre, ndarjet poloitike.
Problemet e transportit jane bere me te mprehura dhe me kritike se asnjehere tjeter, si ne vendet e industrializuara ashtu edhe ne ato ne zhvillim. Mungesa e lendes djegese (perkohesish) nuk jane probleme qe e preokupojne sot transportin, por eshte rritja e pergjithshme e trafikut dhe e kerkesave per transport, te cilat kane si pasoje efektet e mbingarkit te trafikut, vonesat, aksidentet, si dhe problemet per mjedisin, keto te fundit kane shkuar aq laarg, sa tashme nuk mund te jene te pranueshme. Shprehemi qe keto probleme, nuk mund te kufizohen tek rruget, ose infrastruktura dhe trafiku i autoveturave.
Mjetet primitive te mbartjes jane shfaqur qe ne stadin fillestar te shoqerise njerezore. Nevojat e njeriut per te levizur dhe per te mbartur sendet dhe produktet, e ka bere ate te mendoje, e te veproje, per te perdorur rruge dhe mjete transporti, ne uje, toke dhe me vone ne ajer. Me fjalen transport, do te quajme teresine e veprimeve per c’vendosjen e nje objekti materjal ose frymore, pa ja humbur vetite perberese te tij, brenda nje ambjenti te caktuar me karakteristikat e pergjithshme te tij.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Delivering Micro-Credentials in Technical and Vocational Education and TrainingAG2 Design
Explore how micro-credentials are transforming Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) with this comprehensive slide deck. Discover what micro-credentials are, their importance in TVET, the advantages they offer, and the insights from industry experts. Additionally, learn about the top software applications available for creating and managing micro-credentials. This presentation also includes valuable resources and a discussion on the future of these specialised certifications.
For more detailed information on delivering micro-credentials in TVET, visit this https://tvettrainer.com/delivering-micro-credentials-in-tvet/
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
1. Session 10 – Nuclear Power
T. Ferguson,
University of
2. Session 10 – Nuclear Power
• Recall that nuclear supplies ~ 8 Quads to
US annually (8% of total; 20% of electricity)
• Terminology
• Fuels, reserves, wastes
• Energy Release, Efficiencies
• Costs
• Status and Policy
T. Ferguson,
University of
3. Nuclear Power
Basics
•
•
•
•
•
Nuclear vs. chemical energy
All energy derives from nuclear!
Resulting sum of
Fission: Splitting heavy atoms
products has slightly
less mass than sum
Fusion: Combining lighter atoms
of original reactants
Fissionable isotope captures neutron, yields:
–
–
–
–
Unstable isotope
Fragments with high kinetic energy
Neutrons
Beta, gamma, neutrino emissions
• Moderator
• Control Rods
T. Ferguson,
University of
5. Radioactive Decay
Fission might be best understood by first looking at
how the most abundant, naturally occurring isotope
of Uranium, U-238, decays:
• First, elements with atomic number above Lead tend to decay
• “Decay” implies transitioning to a stable element with
smaller neutron-proton ratio
• U-238 has 146 neutrons, for an n/p of 1.587
• This neutron ratio is the highest for any natural isotope
U-238 decays by first emitting an alpha particle: 2n + 2p
• An alpha particle is identical to the Helium nucleus
• So U-238 loses 2n and 2p, reducing it to Thorium-234
• But Thorium is also unstable, and emits a
Beta particle: nuclear electron
• This, in effect, increases the proton count by 1, forcing
the release of a neutron to keep the nucleon count constant
T. Ferguson,
University of
So, Thorium-234 becomes Protactinium-234 (Z=91),
which is also unstable . . . And eventually ends at Pb
6. Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Half-life: time for half of atoms to decay
If N=number of atoms present, and
N0 = number of atoms initially, and
λ = decay rate constant,
Then N = N0 e –λt
Set N=0.5N0 to solve for T1/2
U-238 half-life is 4.5 E 9 years (age of universe)
T. Ferguson,
University of
7. Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Half-life: time for half of atoms to
decay
Radium: Discovered by Curies in 1898, T 1/2 of
1600 years, part of U-238 decay chain
Decay rate of 1 gram of Radium is basis for
unit of decay, the curie.
So, the curie is a measure of the radioactivity
of a material
T. Ferguson,
University of
8. Radioactive Decay
Derivation of curie:
If N = N0 e –λt, then λ = 0.693/T1/2.
Given T1/2 for Ra-226 = 1600 yrs,
λ = 1.375 E -11 sec-1.
To obtain the decay rate, we need the
number of atoms in one gram of Ra-226
T. Ferguson,
University of
9. Radioactive Decay
Ra-226 has atomic weight of about 226, so
1 kg-mol = 226 kg
has Avogadro’s number of atoms
(6.02 E 26), which becomes N0.
1 gram, therefore, contains 2.66 E 21 atoms,
which is N
The decay rate is λN = 3.66 E 10 disintegrations per
second
(almost 40 billion events per second)
(The curie is formally 3.7 E 10 disintegrations/s)
T. Ferguson,
University of
11. Nuclear Fission
1. Neutrons are the key ingredient
Energy
Uranium-235
+
Neutrons
3. Critical: Steady rate of chain reaction
Subcritical: Decreasing reaction rate
Supercritical: Increasing reaction rate
Fission
Radioactive fission
products
2. If at least one
Neutrons of these results
(about 2.5) in a second event,
a self-sustaining
fission chain reaction
ensues
Uranium-235
T. Ferguson,
University of
Process
repeats
12. Quote of the Week
“If we have in the future an accident where the
reactors go critical, I would only pray for MiamiDade County since there is no way to evacuate
the population today compared with in 1972,
when the reactors were originally permitted," the
president Rhonda Roff of an environmental
group called "Save It Now, Glades" told AFP.
Comment from article from AFP on Florida’s electrical blackout of 2/26/08
<http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hqzKZYV_FS7JoyYm90kopwwsSKBA>
T. Ferguson,
University of
14. Thermal Nuclear Fission
vs. Fast Fission
Energy
Uranium-235
+
Neutrons
1. U-235 only natural fuel that works
with thermal neutrons
2. Probability of spontaneous fission
of U-235 very, very small (1 per
second, or 200 MeV=3.2E-11 J/s/kg)
3. Fission starts with absorption of neutron
4. Prob of absorption decreases with neutron
energy (so moderator used in
thermal reactors)
5. Fast fission reactors use other fuels able to
fission with high energy neutrons
T. Ferguson,
University of
Fission
Radioactive fission
products
Neutrons
(about 2.5)
Uranium-235
Process
repeats
16. Energy of Fission
• Fission of U-235 releases about 200 MeV per atom
(recall that 1 electron volt = 1.6 E -19 J,
or 200 MeV = 3.2 E -11 Joules)
• Compare to combustion of Carbon with Q=94E6 cal/kg-mol
4.1 eV per atom
• 50 million times more energy on atom-atom basis
• 2.5 million times more energy on weight basis
• Instead of 3 million tons of coal per year for 1000 MW plant,
nuclear fission would require 1.2 tons of U-235
T. Ferguson,
University of
17. PWR Fuel Assembly
Sample PWR Fuel Assembly
•Array of 14X14 rods
•179 fuel rods
•16 control rods - ganged
•1 instrumentation rod
•Assembly is 7” X 7”, 12 ft tall
Fuel: U-235 enriched from
natural concentration of
0.71% to a few %
Fission of U-238 possible
only with fast neutrons
T. Ferguson,
University of
From http://www.mnf.co.jp/pages2/pwr2.htm. Accessed 2/28/08; and instructor notes
18. The Uranium Fuel Cycle
- Sources -
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: International Atomic Energy Agency
19. Fuel Cycle
Annual mass flows for 1000 MWe LWR
Ore
86,000 tons
Storage
(US)
Reprocessing
(UK, France)
T. Ferguson,
University of
UF6 gas
203 tons
U3O8 solid
162 tons
Spent Fuel
36 tons
Enriched UF6
53 tons
Reactor
UO2 Fuel
36 tons
Low Level Waste
50 tons
Adapted from Tester, et al, Sustainable Energy. Figure 8.6
20. Reactor Designs
Designs Currently in Operation (Generation II)
• PWR – Pressurized Water Reactor
(Westinghouse)
• BWR – Boiling Water Reactor (GE)
• GCR – Gas Cooled Reactor
• LMFBR – Liquid Metal Fast Breeder Reactor
• PHWR – Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor
• RBMK – Similar to BWR
T. Ferguson,
University of
21. New Reactor Designs
Designs Submitted in Recent Applications
(Generation III and III+):
– AP1000 (Westinghouse)
– EPR (Areva)
– ESBWR (GE)
– ABWR (GE)
– US-APWR (Mitsubishi)
1
T. Ferguson,
University of
(6 COLs)1
(3)
(5)
(1)
(1)
Combined Licenses, as of 10/21/08. Covers 25 new units
26. Nuclear Power Performance
• Water in liquid state limited to 705 °F
• Reactors (PWR, BWR) limited to η<30%
• (70% waste heat)/(30% useful) =
2 1/3 units of waste heat per useful unit
- must be dissipated in condenser
• Fossil Fuel: η=40%, or 1.5 units
waste/useful
• Hence, difference in cooling tower size
T. Ferguson,
University of
27. Nuclear Power Performance
US Reactors Operating:
• Licensed 1968-74: 38 reactors, 6 closed
• Licensed 1975-78: 23 reactors, 3 closed
• Licensed 1979-96: 52 reactors, 0 closed
• 104 reactors in operation
• Only 1 reactor licensed since 1976 is
permanently closed (TMI-II)
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: EIA
28. Nuclear Power Performance
US Nuclear Plant Capacity Factors
• 1980:
56%
• 1990:
66%
• 2000:
88%
• 2002:
90%
• 2007:
91.8%
• Capacity constant since 1990, but . . .
• Energy produced increased by 33%
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: EIA
29. Costs
• Average Operating Expenses, 2001
–
–
–
–
Nuclear:
Fossil:
Hydro
Other Fossil:
1.8 cents/kWh (1/4 is fuel)
2.3 cents (3/4 is fuel)
1.0 cents (no fuel cost)
5.0 cents (80% is fuel)
• Fuel: $1787/kg UO2 (1/2007)
– For 45,000 MWd/t burn-up: 360,000 kWh/kg, or $0.005/kWh
• Capital:
$1000/kW in Czech Republic
$2500/kW in Japan
(Compare to $1000-1500 for coal, $500-1000 for gas,
and $1000-1500 for wind; 2005 numbers)
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: EIA, Electric Power Annual 2000; Australian Uranium Association
30. Costs
Cost Projections for 2010 with 10% discount rate
(capital becomes 70% of energy cost):
USA
France
Japan
Canada
Korea
Czech Rep.
Nuclear
4.65 c/kWh
3.93
6.86
3.71
3.38
3.17
Gas
3.65
4.42
6.91
4.12
2.71
3.71
Coal
4.90
4.30
6.38
4.36
4.94
5.46
US 2003 cents/kWh; 40 year lifetime; 85% capacity factor
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: OECD/IEA NEA 2005/Australian Uranium Association
31. Major US Nuclear Plant Operators
•
•
•
•
•
Exelon
Entergy
Duke
TVA
NMC
17,000 MW
9,000 MW
7,000 MW
6,700 MW
1,689 MW
17%
9%
7%
7%
2%
(figures are approximate)
T. Ferguson,
University of
Sources: EIA, Wikipedia.org/wiki/nuclear_management_corporation (accessed 3/10/08)
32. US Nuclear Power Policy
Energy Policy Act of 2005
– Price-Anderson Act extended to 2026 ($10B)
– Cost overrun support for up to 6 new plants
– First 6000 MW: PTC of 1.8 cents/kWh
Nuclear Power 2010 Program, of 2002
– Joint gov’t/industry effort to build adv. Plants
– 3 consortia have received grants
– Applications have been submitted
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: DOE
33. US Nuclear Power Policy
A Renaissance?
After nearly 30 years, the first applications to
the NRC for Combined Construction and
Operating Licenses:
– 9/2007: South Texas Project: GE ABWR’s
– 11/2007: TVA in Alabama: Westinghouse
AP1000 PWR’s
– 5 18 other sites
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: NRC
34. Global Nuclear Power Policy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Canada: will maintain current fleet
Mexico: Planning another 8 reactors
UK: Undecided
Russia: Planning another 27 reactors
China: Planning another 25
India: Planning another 15
Pakistan: Planning another 2
Japan: Planning another 12
Norway/Sweden/Finland: maybe/no/yes
Germany: Phase out by 2020
Italy: Shuttered; moratorium
Brazil: Planning another 7 reactors
T. Ferguson,
University of
Source: Wikipedia