1. Secondary metabolites are molecules produced by organisms that are not essential for growth but provide other important functions.
2. Alkaloids are an important class of secondary metabolites derived from amino acids. They have diverse pharmacological effects used in medicine.
3. Terpenoids are another major class of secondary metabolites derived from chains of isoprene units. They contribute flavors, scents, pigments and hormones in plants.
Plant growth regulators (also called plant hormones) are numerous chemical substances that profoundly influence the growth and differentiation of plant cells, tissues and organs.
Metabolites, Secondary metabolites are derived from primary metabolites, Why secondary metabolites, Phenolics, Terpenoids, Alkaloids, Special nitrogen metabolites, Cuticular compounds .The major classes of these found in plants
Plant growth regulators (also called plant hormones) are numerous chemical substances that profoundly influence the growth and differentiation of plant cells, tissues and organs.
Metabolites, Secondary metabolites are derived from primary metabolites, Why secondary metabolites, Phenolics, Terpenoids, Alkaloids, Special nitrogen metabolites, Cuticular compounds .The major classes of these found in plants
Plant Growth Regulators
Plant Growth Promoters – They promote cell division, cell enlargement, flowering, fruiting and seed formation. Examples are auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.
Plant Growth Inhibitors – These chemicals inhibit growth and promote dormancy and abscission in plants. An example is an abscisic acid.
Vaccines have been revolutionary for the prevention of infectious diseases. Despite worldwide immunization of children against the six devastating diseases, 20% of infants are still left un-immunized; responsible for approximately two million unnecessary deaths every year, especially in the remote and impoverished parts of the globe. This is because of the constraints on vaccine production, distribution and delivery. One hundred percent coverage is desirable, because un-immunized populations in remote areas can spread infections and epidemics in the immunized safe areas, which have comparatively low herd immunity. For some infectious diseases, immunizations either do not exist or they are unreliable or very expensive. Immunization through DNA vaccines is an alternative but is an expensive approach, with disappointing immune response. Hence the search is on for cost-effective, easy-to-administer, easy-to-store, fail-safe and socio-culturally readily acceptable vaccines and their delivery systems. As Hippocrates said, Let thy food be thy medicine, scientists suggest that plants and plant viruses can be genetically engineered to produce vaccines against diseases such as dental caries; and life-threatening infections like diarrhea, AIDS, etc (Lal et al., 2007)
The presentation gives overview of production of secondary metabolites using callus culture as well as tissue culture techniques. Various batch and continuous culturing process are described on the basis of secondary metabolite to be synthesised.
Objectives:
After the end of the presentation we’ll know -
What is cloning vector?
Why cloning vector?
History
Features of a cloning vector
Types of cloning vector
Plasmid
Bacteriophage
Cosmid
Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC)
Yeast Artificial Chromosome (BAC)
Human Artificial Chromosome (HAC)
Retroviral Vectors
What determines choice of vector?
Vector in molecular gene cloning
Cloning vector - The molecular analysis of DNA has been made possible by the cloning of DNA. The two molecules that are required for cloning are the DNA to be cloned and a cloning vector.
A cloning vector is a small piece of DNA taken from a virus, a plasmid or the cell of a higher organism, that can be stably maintained in an organism and into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes.
Most vectors are genetically engineered.
The cloning vector is chosen according to the size and type of DNA to be cloned.
The vector therefore contains features that allow for the convenient insertion or removal of DNA fragment in or out of the vector, for example by treating the vector and the foreign DNA with a restriction enzyme and then ligating the fragments together.
After a DNA fragment has been cloned into a cloning vector, it may be further subcloned into another vector designed for more specific use.
Organogenesis, in plant tissue cultureKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Definition
Types of organogenesis
Organogenesis through callus formation (indirect organogenesis)
Growth regulators for indirect organogenesis
Organogenesis through adventitious organ (direct organogenesis)
Growth regulators for direct organogenesis
Factor affecting the soot bud differentiation
Organogenic differentiation
Application of organogenesis
Conclusion
References
This PPT will provide the basic idea of Fermentation technology and it's use. The reference book is 'Pharmaceutical Biotechnology' by Giriraj Kulkarni.
Plant Growth Regulators
Plant Growth Promoters – They promote cell division, cell enlargement, flowering, fruiting and seed formation. Examples are auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.
Plant Growth Inhibitors – These chemicals inhibit growth and promote dormancy and abscission in plants. An example is an abscisic acid.
Vaccines have been revolutionary for the prevention of infectious diseases. Despite worldwide immunization of children against the six devastating diseases, 20% of infants are still left un-immunized; responsible for approximately two million unnecessary deaths every year, especially in the remote and impoverished parts of the globe. This is because of the constraints on vaccine production, distribution and delivery. One hundred percent coverage is desirable, because un-immunized populations in remote areas can spread infections and epidemics in the immunized safe areas, which have comparatively low herd immunity. For some infectious diseases, immunizations either do not exist or they are unreliable or very expensive. Immunization through DNA vaccines is an alternative but is an expensive approach, with disappointing immune response. Hence the search is on for cost-effective, easy-to-administer, easy-to-store, fail-safe and socio-culturally readily acceptable vaccines and their delivery systems. As Hippocrates said, Let thy food be thy medicine, scientists suggest that plants and plant viruses can be genetically engineered to produce vaccines against diseases such as dental caries; and life-threatening infections like diarrhea, AIDS, etc (Lal et al., 2007)
The presentation gives overview of production of secondary metabolites using callus culture as well as tissue culture techniques. Various batch and continuous culturing process are described on the basis of secondary metabolite to be synthesised.
Objectives:
After the end of the presentation we’ll know -
What is cloning vector?
Why cloning vector?
History
Features of a cloning vector
Types of cloning vector
Plasmid
Bacteriophage
Cosmid
Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC)
Yeast Artificial Chromosome (BAC)
Human Artificial Chromosome (HAC)
Retroviral Vectors
What determines choice of vector?
Vector in molecular gene cloning
Cloning vector - The molecular analysis of DNA has been made possible by the cloning of DNA. The two molecules that are required for cloning are the DNA to be cloned and a cloning vector.
A cloning vector is a small piece of DNA taken from a virus, a plasmid or the cell of a higher organism, that can be stably maintained in an organism and into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes.
Most vectors are genetically engineered.
The cloning vector is chosen according to the size and type of DNA to be cloned.
The vector therefore contains features that allow for the convenient insertion or removal of DNA fragment in or out of the vector, for example by treating the vector and the foreign DNA with a restriction enzyme and then ligating the fragments together.
After a DNA fragment has been cloned into a cloning vector, it may be further subcloned into another vector designed for more specific use.
Organogenesis, in plant tissue cultureKAUSHAL SAHU
Introduction
Definition
Types of organogenesis
Organogenesis through callus formation (indirect organogenesis)
Growth regulators for indirect organogenesis
Organogenesis through adventitious organ (direct organogenesis)
Growth regulators for direct organogenesis
Factor affecting the soot bud differentiation
Organogenic differentiation
Application of organogenesis
Conclusion
References
This PPT will provide the basic idea of Fermentation technology and it's use. The reference book is 'Pharmaceutical Biotechnology' by Giriraj Kulkarni.
Plants produce a vast and diverse organic compounds, which do not appear to participate directly in growth and development.These substances traditionally referred to as secondary metabolites which terpenes are one of them.
An isotope is one of two or more atoms having the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Unstable isotopes are called Radioisotopes.
uses of radioisotopes are many which are discussed in this slide.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Taxonomy and Classification unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. Teaching Duration = 7 Weeks. A 2700 slide PowerPoint presentation becomes the roadmap for an amazing science experience. Complete with bundled homework package, hands-on activities built into the slideshow with directions, many built-in quizzes, answer keys, unit. Areas of Focus in The Plant Unit: Plant photo tour, Plant Evolution, Importance of Algae, Lichens, The Three Types of Lichens, Non-Vascular Plants, Bryophytes,Seedless Vascular Plants (Ferns), Seeds, Seed Dormancy, Factors that Break Seed Dormancy, Germination, Parts of a Young Plant, Monocots and Dicots, Roots and Water, Types of Roots, Water Uptake and Photosynthesis, Plant Hormones, Types of Plant Tissues, Xylem and Phloem, Woody Plants, Leaves,Light and Plants, Transpiration, Guard Cells, Leaf Identification, Plant Life Cycles, Seed Plant Life Cycles, Parts of a Flower, Matured Ovaries (Fruits), Types of Fruit and much more. f you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds of low molecular weight. They are mainly produced by plants and animals for defense. Examples of alkaloids include morphine, codeine, coniine, quinine, scopolamine, hyoscamine, atropine, caffeine, sangunarine, berberine, etc.
anthraquinone, coumarin, cyanogens (cyanohydrin), flavonoids, glucosinolates (or thioglycosides), phenols, steroidal, terpenoids, and saponins.
A type of chemical found in plants and in certain foods, such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, wine, and tea.
Biosynthesis and pharmaceutical applications of alkaloids [autosaved]JasmineJuliet
Alkaloids definition, History of Biosynthesis of alkaloids, Alkaloids application in pharmaceutical field, Biological activity of alkaloids, Alkaloids have different pharmaceutical property their names and their uses in pharmaceutical field.
Alkaloids- the term alkaloids are used to designate basic nitrogenous compounds of plant origin that are physiologically active. This ppt contains introduction of alkaloids, history, classification, property, function, uses of alkaloids, effects of alkaloids on human, extraction of alkaloids, biosynthesis of alkaloids, heterogeneous alkaloids, non heterogeneous alkaloids, solubility of alkaloids, chemical property of alkaloids, function of alkaloids in plant.
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that contain mostly basic nitrogen atoms. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure are also termed alkaloids. In addition to carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, alkaloids may also contain oxygen, sulfur and, more rarely, other elements such as chlorine, bromine, and phosphorus.
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. They can be purified from crude extracts of these organisms by acid-base extraction. Alkaloids have a wide range of pharmacological activities including antimalarial (e.g. quinine), antiasthma (e.g. ephedrine), anticancer (e.g. homoharringtonine),cholinomimetic (e.g. galantamine), vasodilatory (e.g. vincamine), antiarrhythmic (e.g. quinidine), analgesic (e.g. morphine),antibacterial (e.g. chelerythrine), and antihyperglycemic activities (e.g. piperine). Many have found use in traditional or modern medicine, or as starting points for drug discovery. Other alkaloids possess psychotropic (e.g. psilocin) and stimulant activities (e.g. cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, theobromine), and have been used in entheogenic rituals or as recreational drugs. Alkaloids can be toxic too (e.g. atropine, tubocurarine). Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly evoke a bitter taste
Occurrence and classification and function of alkaloidsJasmineJuliet
Alkaloids introduction, Alkaloids classification, Alkaloids function, pharmaceutical applications of alkaloids, Examples of alkaloids, Some review questions related to alkaloids.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
The increased availability of biomedical data, particularly in the public domain, offers the opportunity to better understand human health and to develop effective therapeutics for a wide range of unmet medical needs. However, data scientists remain stymied by the fact that data remain hard to find and to productively reuse because data and their metadata i) are wholly inaccessible, ii) are in non-standard or incompatible representations, iii) do not conform to community standards, and iv) have unclear or highly restricted terms and conditions that preclude legitimate reuse. These limitations require a rethink on data can be made machine and AI-ready - the key motivation behind the FAIR Guiding Principles. Concurrently, while recent efforts have explored the use of deep learning to fuse disparate data into predictive models for a wide range of biomedical applications, these models often fail even when the correct answer is already known, and fail to explain individual predictions in terms that data scientists can appreciate. These limitations suggest that new methods to produce practical artificial intelligence are still needed.
In this talk, I will discuss our work in (1) building an integrative knowledge infrastructure to prepare FAIR and "AI-ready" data and services along with (2) neurosymbolic AI methods to improve the quality of predictions and to generate plausible explanations. Attention is given to standards, platforms, and methods to wrangle knowledge into simple, but effective semantic and latent representations, and to make these available into standards-compliant and discoverable interfaces that can be used in model building, validation, and explanation. Our work, and those of others in the field, creates a baseline for building trustworthy and easy to deploy AI models in biomedicine.
Bio
Dr. Michel Dumontier is the Distinguished Professor of Data Science at Maastricht University, founder and executive director of the Institute of Data Science, and co-founder of the FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) data principles. His research explores socio-technological approaches for responsible discovery science, which includes collaborative multi-modal knowledge graphs, privacy-preserving distributed data mining, and AI methods for drug discovery and personalized medicine. His work is supported through the Dutch National Research Agenda, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, Horizon Europe, the European Open Science Cloud, the US National Institutes of Health, and a Marie-Curie Innovative Training Network. He is the editor-in-chief for the journal Data Science and is internationally recognized for his contributions in bioinformatics, biomedical informatics, and semantic technologies including ontologies and linked data.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
2. 2
• Primary metabolites: Molecules that are essential for
growth and development of an organism.
Examples:
1.Carbohydrates 2.Proteins 3.Lipids
4.Nucleic acids 5.Hormones
• Secondary metabolites: molecules that are not
essential for growth and development of an organism.
Metabolites
4. 4
Why secondary metabolites?
• are biosynthetically derived from primary metabolites. They
are more limited in distribution being found usually in specifi
c families.
• Chemical warfare to protect plants from the attacks
by predators, pathogens, or competitors
• Attract pollinators or seed dispersal agents
• Important for abiotic stresses
• Medicine
• Industrial additives
5. 5
• Possibly over 250,000 secondary metabolites in
plants
• Classified based on common biosynthetic pathw
ays where a chemical is derived.
• Four major classes: Alkaloids, glycosides, phen
olics, terpenoids
Secondary metabolites
6. 6
Alkaloids
• Most are derived from a few common amino
acids (i.e., tyrosine, tryptophan, ornithine or
argenine, and lysine)
• Compounds have a ring structure and a nitro
gen residue.
• Indole alkaloids is the largest group in this fa
mily, derived from tryptophan
• Widely used as medicine
7. 7
Terpenoids
• Terpenes are generally polymers of 5-carbon unit
called isoprene
• Give scent, flavors, colors, medicine...
• Three plant hormones are derived from the terpen
oid pathway.
9. WHAT ARE ALKALOIDS?
• These are commonly applied to basic nitrogenous comp
ounds of plant origin that are physiologically active.
• Organic nitrogenous compounds with a limited distribut
ion in native nature.
10. Characteristics:
• They are bitter in taste.
• Derived from amino acids.The amino acids that are most often serve
as alkaloidal precursors are: phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, h
istidine, anthranilic acid, lysine and ornithine.
• Alkaloids form double salts with compounds of mercury, gold, platin
um and other heavy metals. These salts are obtained as precipitate w
hich are microcrystals.
11. • Insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, but the
salts formed on reaction with acids are usually
freely soluble.
• Most are crystalline solids although a few are a
morphous.
12. • Free alkaloids are usually soluble in polar solvents
like ether, chloroform
• Some alkaloids are liquid because of lacking of ox
ygen in their molecules. (e.g coniine, nicotine, spa
rtenine)
13. Sources and Occurrence of Alkaloids
• Alkaloids can occur in plant kingdoms; among the angiospe
rms,
• Leguminosae,
• Papaveraceae,
• Ranunculaceae,
• Rubiaceae,
• Solanaceae,
• Berberidaceae are outstanding alkaloid-yielding plants.
14. Uses of Alkaloids in Plants:
• Poisonous agents which protect plants against insects and
herbivores
• End products of detoxification reactions representing a metab
olic locking-up of compounds otherwise harmful to the plants
.
• For regulatory growth factors
• Reserve substance capable of supplying nitrogen or other ele
ments necessary to the plant’s economy
15. Naming for alkaloids
• From the generic name or the genus of the p
lant yielding them (e.g vinblastine and vincristi
ne. atropine)
• The specific name or species of the plant yie
lding alkaloids ( e.g belladonnine)
16. • From their physiologic activity (e.g emetine,
morphine)
• From the discoverer (e.g pelletierine)
~ All names of alkaloids should end in “-ine”.
~ A prefix or suffix is added to the name of a principal
alkaloid from the same source. (quinine, quinidine,
hydroquinine)
17. Pharmacologic action of Alkaloids:
• Analgesic (morphine, codeine)
• Narcotics (strychnine, brucine which are central
stimulant)
• Anti malarial ( quinine)
• Anti pyretic
• Anti cancer (vincristine)
• Mydriatics (atropine)
• Anti inflammatory
• Miotics (physostigmine, pilocarpine)
• Ephedrine (rises in blood pressure, bronchodilator)
• Reserpine (produce fall in excessive hypertension)
25. Quinine
• Dia-stereo-isomer of quinidine
• It occurs as white, odourless, bulky crystals or as
a crystalline powder.
• It darkens when exposed to light and effloresces i
n dry air.
• It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether and chlorofor
m but slightly soluble in water.
26. Uses
• Antimalarial
• For treating of chloroquinine resistant falciparum mal
aria combination with pyrimethamine and sulfadoxine
or tetracycline or clindamycin.
• It has a skeletal muscle relaxant effect.
• It is widely used for the prevention and treatment of n
octurnal recumbency leg cramps.
34. PSEUDO ALKALOIDS
DITERPENES
e.g. Aconitine, aconine, hypoaconitine
PROTO OR NON HETERO CYCLIC
ALKALOIDS
ALKYLAMINES
e.g. Ephedrine,pseudoephedrine, colchicine
35. • C17H19NO3
• a component of blackpepper (Piper nigrum)
• has been used in various traditional medicin
e preparations
• an insecticide.
has various effects on human drug met
abolizing enzymes, and is marketed und
er the brand name, Bioperine,
PIPERINE
36. Quinine,
1. molecular formula C20H24N2O2
2. is a white crystalline quinoline alkaloid.
3. Quinine is extremely bitter, and also possesses anti
pyretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties.
4. has strong anti malarial properties,
5. quinine in therapeutic doses can cause various side-
effects, e.g. nausea, vomiting and cinchonism, and i
n some patients pulmonary oedema.
6. It may also cause paralysis if accidentally injected int
o a nerve.
7. Non-medicinal uses of quinine include its uses as a f
lavouring agent in tonic water and bitter lemon.
38. Vinca alkaloids
The Vinca alkaloids are a subset of drugs that are deriv
ed from the periwinkle plant, Catharanthus roseus.
N
N
OH
C2H5
H3
COOC
N
N
R
OAc
OH COOCH3
H
H
MeO
Vinblastine R=-CH3
Vincristine R=-CHO
40. Serpentine
• Molecular Formula: C21H22N2O3
• Isolated from Rauwolfia serpentina
• To treat High blood pressure
• to treat insect stings and the bites of venomous reptiles
43. TERPENES
The chemist Leopold Ruzicka ( born 1887) showed that many compounds
found in nature were formed from multiples of five carbons arranged in
the same pattern as an isoprene molecule (obtained by pyrolysis of
natural rubber).
He called these compounds “terpenes”.
C C
C
C C
.
isoprene
natural
rubber
D
isoprene
unit
head
tail
C C
C C
C
44. The Biological Isoprene Unit
• The isoprene units in terpenes do not come from
isoprene.
• They come from isopentenyl pyrophosphate.
• Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (5 carbons) comes
from acetate (2 carbons) via mevalonate
(6 carbons).
45. Terpenes
• Terpenes are natural products that are
structurally related to isoprene.
H2C C
CH3
CH CH2
or
Isoprene
(2-methyl-1,3-butadiene)
46. The Biological Isoprene Unit
CH3COH
O
3 HOCCH2CCH2CH2OH
CH3
OH
O
Mevalonic acid
H2C CCH2CH2OPOPOH
CH3 O O
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
48. Isopentenyl and Dimethylallyl Pyrophosphate
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate is interconvertible with
2-methylallyl pyrophosphate.
OPPOPP
• Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate has a leaving group
(pyrophosphate) at an allylic carbon; it is reactive toward
nucleophilic substitution at this position.
Isopentenyl pyrophosphate Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate
49. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation
• The key process involves the double bond of
isopentenyl pyrophosphate acting as a nucleophile
toward the allylic carbon of dimethylallyl pyroph
osphate.
+
OPP
OPP
50. After C—C Bond Formation...
+
OPP
• The carbocation
can lose a proton
to give a double
bond.
51. After C—C Bond Formation...
+
OPP
OPP
• The carbocatio
n can lose a pro
ton to give a do
uble bond.
H–
+
52. After C—C Bond Formation...
OPP
• This compound is called geranyl pyrophosphate. I
t can undergo hydrolysis of its pyrophosphate to gi
ve geraniol (rose oil).
56. From 10 Carbons to 15
OPP
• This compound is called farnesyl pyrophosphate
.
• Hydrolysis of the pyrophosphate ester gives the
alcohol farnesol.
57. Cyclization
• Rings form by intramolecular carbon-carbon b
ond formation.
OPP
OPP
+
E double b
ond
Z double b
ond
58. CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
58
TYPE OF NUMBER OF ISOPRENE
TERPENE CARBON ATOMS UNITS
hemiterpene
terpene
sesquiterpene
diterpene
triterpene
tetraterpene
C5
C10
C15
C20
C30
C40
one
two
three
four
six
eight
hemi = half di = two
Sesqui = one and a half tri = three
tetra = four
NOTE:
59. • Hemiterpenes consist of a single isoprene unit. Isoprene itself is considered
the only hemiterpene, but oxygen-containing derivatives such as prenol and iso
valeric acid are hemiterpenoids.
• Monoterpenes consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula
C10H16. Examples of monoterpenes are: geraniol,limonene and terpineol.
• Sesquiterpenes consist of three isoprene units and have the molecular formula
C15H24. Examples of sesquiterpenes are: humulene,farnesenes, farnesol.
• Diterpenes are composed of four isoprene units and have the molecular formu
la C20H32. They derive from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Examples of diterp
enes are cafestol, kahweol, cembrene and taxadiene (precursor of taxol).
CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
60. • Sesterterpenes, terpenes having 25 carbons and five isoprene units,
are rare relative to the other sizes, example: geranylfarnesol.
• Triterpenes consist of six isoprene units and have the molecular form
ula C30H48. The linear triterpene squalene, the major constituent of shar
k liver oil, is derived from the reductive coupling of two molecules
of farnesyl pyrophosphate. Squalene is then processed biosynthetically
to generate either lanosterol or cycloartenol , the structural precursors
to all the steroids.
• Sesquarterpenes are composed of seven isoprene units and have the
molecular formula C35H56. Sesquarterpenes are typically microbial in
their origin. Examples of sesquarterpenes are ferrugicadiol and tetrapre
nylcurcumene.
CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
61. • Tetraterpenes contain eight isoprene units and have the molecular
formula C40H64. Biologically important tetraterpenes include the
acyclic lycopene, the monocyclic gamma-carotene, and the
bicyclic alpha- and beta-carotenes.
• Polyterpenes consist of long chains of many isoprene units,eg, Natural
rubber .
• Norisoprenoids,eg: C13-norisoprenoids 3-oxo-α-ionol present in
Muscat of Alexandria leaves and 7,8-dihydroiononederivatives, such
as megastigmane-3,9-diol and 3-oxo-7,8-dihydro-α-ionol found in
Shiraz leaves (both grapes in the species Vitis vinifera)
CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES
62. TERPENES
1. The number of C atoms is a multiple of 5, C5
C10 C15 C20 C25 C30 C35 C40
2. Each group of 5 C is an isoprene subunit
3. They can be saturated or unsaturated
4. Many contain O atoms as well.
5. What they all have in common is 1 & 2 above.
63. 63
JOINING ISOPRENE UNITS
The terms head-to-tail and
tail-to-tail are often used to
describe how the isoprene
units are joined.
C C
C
C C
.
an extra
bond
Head-to-Tail
Head-to-Tail
Tail-to-Tail
78. β-carotene – a linear terpene
8 isoprene units
40 carbon atoms
CH2
CH2
CH2
C
C
C
CH3CH3
CH
CH
C
CH
CH
CH
C
CH
CH
CH
CH
C
CH
CH
CH
C
CH
CH
C
C
CH2
CH2
CH2
C
CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
-carotene
79. 79
• Taxol is a terpenoid
• "the best anti-cancer agent” by National Canc
er Institute
• Has remarkable activity against advanced ovari
an and breast cancer, and has been approved
for clinical use.
Taxol
Taxus brevifolia Nutt.
80. 80
• Camptothecin is an indole alkaloid, derived from
tryptophan.
• Has anticancer and antiviral activity
• Two CPT analogues have been used in cancer c
hemotherapy, topotecan and irinotecan.
81. Phenolics
• Derived from aromatic amino acids, such as phenylalanine, tyrosin,
and trytophan.
• All contain structures derived from phenol
• Some examples:
Coumarins: antimicrobial agents, feeding deterrents, and germinati
on inhibitors.
Lignin: abundant in secondary cell wall, rigid and resistant to extraction o
r many degradation reagents
Anthocyanins
Flavones
Flavnols
Phenols are present in every plant they attract pollinators to the plant an
d even impact how these plants act with one another.
82. 82
Glycosides
• Compounds that contain a carbonhydrate and a noncarbohy
drate
• Glycosides are present in vacuoles in inactive form
• Glucosinolates: found primarily in the mustard family to give
the pungent taste
There are four type of linkages present between glycone and aglyc
one:
C-linkage/glycosidic bond,
O-linkage/glycosidic bond
N-linkage/glycosidic bond
S-linkage/glycosidic bond
• .
83. Cyanogenic glycosides
All of these plants have these glycosides stored in the vacuole,
but, if the plant is attacked, they are released and become
activated by enzymes in the cytoplasm.
These remove the sugar part of the molecule and release
toxic hydrogen cyanide.
An example of these is amygdalin from bitter almonds
Cyanogenic glycosides can also be found in the fruit seeds (and
wilting leaves) of many members of the rose
family (including cherries, apples, plums, bitter
almonds, peaches, apricots,raspberries, and crabapples
84. Sources
Plant resins[
A liquid compounds found inside plants or exuded by plants,
But not saps, latex, or mucilage,
The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of
volatile fluid terpenes
resins do not serve a nutritive function.
The toxic resinous compounds may confound a wide range of herbivores,
insects, and pathogens; while the volatile phenolic compounds may attract
benefactors such as parasitoids or predators of the herbivores that attack
the plants
85. Latex
latex as found in nature is a milky fluid found in 10% of all flowering plants
(angiosperms).
It is a complex emulsion consisting of
proteins, alkaloids, starches, sugars, oils, tannins, resins, and gums that
coagulate on exposure to air. It is usually exuded after tissue injury. In most
plants, latex is white, but some have yellow, orange, or scarlet latex.
It serves mainly as defense against herbivorous insects.
Natural rubber is the most important product obtained from latex
This latex is used to make many other products as well, including
mattresses, gloves, swim caps, catheters and balloons
In chewing gum, and glues
86. Sources
Plant sterol;
The richest naturally occurring sources of phytosterols are vegetable oils
and products made from them.
They can be present in the free form and as esters of fatty acid/cinnamic
acid or as glycosides,
Phytosterols, which encompass plant sterols and stanols,
are steroid compounds similar to cholesterol which occur in plants and vary
only in carbon side chains and/or presence or absence of a double bond.
Stanols are saturated sterols, having no double bonds in the sterol ring
structure.
87. Sources
Sapogenins
sapogenins are the aglycones, or non-saccharide, portions of the
family of natural products known as saponins. Sapogenins contain
steroid or other triterpene frameworks as their key organic featu
re. For example, steroidal sapogenins like tiggenin, neogitogenin, a
nd tokorogenin have been isolated from the tubers of Chlorophytu
m arundinacelum. Some steroidal sapogenins can serve as a prac
tical starting point for the semisynthesis of particular steroid hor
mones.
88. Essential Oil
An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophob
ic liquid containing volatile aroma compound
s from plants.
Essential oils are also known as volatile oils
, ethereal oils, aetherolea,
They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps
and other products, for flavoring food and dri
nk, and for adding scents to incense and hous
ehold cleaning products
Oil Tonnes
Sweet orange 12,000
Mentha arvensis 4,800
Peppermint 3,200
Cedarwood 2,600
Lemon 2,300
Eucalyptus globulus 2,070
Litsea cubeba 2,000
Clove 2,000
Spearmint 1,300
89. Phenylpropanoids
The phenylpropanoids are a diverse family of organic compounds that are
synthesized by plants from the amino acid phenylalanine
Phenylpropanoids are found throughout the plant kingdom, where they serve
as essential components of a number of structural polymers, provide
protection from ultraviolet light, defend against herbivores and pathogens,
and mediate plant-pollinator interactions as floral pigments and scent
compounds.
91. Outline: Plant-Derived Insecticides
Important insecticides from plants
-rotenoids - New World and Asia
-pyrethrins - Near Eastern center
-tobacco - New World
Ryania speciosa, Flacourtiaceae
Antifeedants
-neem, Azadirichta indica, Meliaceae
92. Introduction
• Many insecticidal compounds are known from plants. Most plant
s make defensive compounds called allomones. Only a few are i
mportant commercially.
• Plant-derived insecticides have largely been replaced by synthe
tic materials, but there are some advantages to the naturally oc
curring materials. For example, these substances are biodegrad
able.
• Selectivity is needed. Compounds that are toxic to insects, but n
ot toxic to mammals, are preferable, of course.
93. Rotenoids
• A series of compounds found in members of the genera Derris,
Lonchocarpus, Tephrosia are known as rotenones.
• Commercially, rotenoids are isolated mostly from the roots of
Derris elliptica in Indonesia and from Lonchocarpus
• These compounds are isolated by grinding the plant and extracti
ng with solvents such as hexane or petroleum ether or chlorofo
rm.
• The compounds are oil soluble or lipids. They make up 1-20% of
the dry weight of the roots.
97. Pyrethrins
• Another major series of compounds, the pyrethri
ns, come from species of the genus Chrysanthem
um (some people put these species in Pyrethrum)
(Asteraceae or Compositae).
• These were used as far back as the 1st century B.
C. by the Chinese. Insecticidal plants mostly are g
rown in countries with inexpensive labor and hig
h elevations such as Kenya and New Guinea.
100. • Ryania speciosa (Flacourtiaceae) is also used occ
asionally and an insecticide.
• A mixture of diterpene, alkaloids is isolated and us
ed for specialty insecticide uses.
• Because the extract is expensive, it is not commo
nly used.
Other plant-derived insecticides
102. Tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, Solanaceae
• Tobacco (which contains nicotine) is another
major source of insecticides. Tobacco wastes
are often extracted and used as a source of n
icotine. Nicotine especially effective against
aphids.
104. Calabar bean
• Calabar bean (Physostigma venenosa, Fabacea
e) is (or has been) a trial-by-ordeal drug in the
Calabar coast of Nigeria. The active compone
nt is physostigmine, an acetyl choline esterase
inhibitor.
• The structure of several commercial carbamate
insecticides is patterned after the structure of th
e plant alkaloid.
106. Antifeedants
• Antifeedants are compounds that prevent insect fe
eding. Although many are toxic, the insects usuall
y don’t consume enough to be poisoned.
• Only one of these, neem, Azadirachta indica, Meli
aceae, is commercially available. The active comp
ound, azadirachtin, is a structurally modified triter
pene.
107. Neem, Azadirachta indi
ca, Meliaceae
Courtesy Dr. Ramesh Pandey
William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management
International, United States