This document summarizes a study that used plot sampling and transect sampling methods to analyze a grassland ecosystem. Quadrat and transect line techniques were used to determine species density, cover estimates, and a species-area curve. Results showed that more species were found as area examined increased, up to a point. Species A dominated all cover estimation methods and had the highest density, dominance, and importance value, indicating it was the keystone species. The diversity index value implied the species in the grassland were diverse. Plot and transect sampling methods provided data about this grassland community.

1. 1
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Methodsof Vegetation Analysis Through the use
of Plot sampling
_______________
A Scientific Paper
Presented to:
Liza A. Adamat, Ph.D.
Department of Biological Sciences
CSM, MSU – IIT
_______________
Presented by:
Shaina Mavreen D. Villaroza
In Partial Fulfillment of the course Bio 107.2 General Ecology
Second Semester 2014-2015

2. 2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Apart from the effort I have done, the success of this field sampling depends
largely on the encouragement and guidelines of many others. I take this opportunity to
express my gratitude to the people who have been instrumental in this successful sampling.
I would like to show my greatest appreciation to Prof. Liza Adamat for the guidance and
help. Without the guidance, this sampling would not have been successful.

3. 3
ABSTRACT
Grassland is entirely composed of tall grasses and lacks trees to grow because
of its scarcity in water. It is maintained by fire to improve the poor quality in it and is an
important natural component of many grassland communities. The purpose of the study is
to determine the cover and density estimates, the species-area curve and the density of plant
species in a grassland ecosystem. With the use of quadrats for plot sampling and the
transect line for transect sampling method, results were determined. Different set-up was
conducted to obtain a certain result. Quadrat and Transect line were entirely used in this
experiment. A 10-m transect line was laid and the 1 square meter quadrat was put at the
end of the 10m transect line and number of species were counted. Results show that in the
tabulation for the species-area curve, the number of species found increases as the area
examined increases. For the estimation of top cover of grasses in the quadrat, varied
percentages were recorded when using different methods of estimation but more or less
follows the same pattern in showing which species are more abundant than the other.
Density estimation, along with Dominance, Frequency, and Importance Value were also
computed for each grass species found in the quadrat. The species richness during the
conduction of Zonation and Density Estimation was 8 and the computed Diversity Index
(Simpson’s Index) value is 0.1932 which implies that the species in the grassland
community is diverse.

4. 4
INTRODUCTION
Grassland characterizes as terrestrial ecosystem in which grasses dominates in
it rather than the large shrubs or trees. This area is entirely compose of tall grasses and is
too dry for many trees to grow and is maintain by fire. One of the simplest and least
expensive practices to improve poor quality grassland is burning. Research within the past
few decades show that fire is an important natural component of many grassland
communities (Daubenmire, 1968). It allows the plant to reach water quickly and makes the
plant particularly resistant to fire. Because of the open landscape and widely spread trees,
grasslands are home to large herds of grazing mammals. Species use to live in it because
of its richness in grasses that are dominant in grassland. It is characterizing by mix
herbaceous (nonwoody) vegetation cover and is composed of different individuals of plant
species.
The objectives of this experiment are to train the students on the principles of
plot and transect sampling as applied in ecological research, to construct a zonation of
diagram of a grassland ecosystem, to be able to interpret the implication of different
combined parameters and to determine the cover and density estimates, the species area
curve and the density of plant species in a grassland ecosystem.
In determining its area, one of the most effective methods of vegetation
analysis is through the use of Plot sampling. This method is use for obtaining samples of
both terrestrial and aquatic such as the plants and slow moving organisms. Quadrat size
depends to a large extent on the type of survey being conducted. As a general guideline,
0.5-1.0 square meter quadrats would be suggested for short grassland. Quadrats ranging
from 0.5 to 2.0 square meters are suggested for grassland vegetation.

5. 5
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This fieldwork sampling was conducted at New Frontier Court, Santiago,
Iligan City (Figure 1). Plot sampling method was entirely used in this study area with the
square meter quadrat, tape measure and the transect line.
Figure 1. Location of the sampling site.
In preparing the Species area curve, only 1 square meter quadrat was used and
positioned in the area that has been selected randomly to be sampled in. Plant species
present in the smallest quadrat that is 10 cm x 10 cm within the 1 square meter quadrat was
counted and being recorded. The smallest subquadrat was being doubled and the number
of species in this new area was observed and recorded. The step in which the smallest
subquadrat was doubled and counted has been repeated until the number of species counted
at each doubled subquadrat size gave no new species. In obtaining the species area curve,
the number of species against the quadrat size was plotted.

6. 6
In obtaining the Cover estimation of vegetation, the area covered with grasses
in the 1 square meter quadrat was estimated and being recorded. The cover of estimation
of vegetation was categorized into direct estimation top cover, Subquadrat estimation of
top cover, 50% method, Braun-Blanquet 5 point scale and the Domin scale.
In the direct estimation, the top cover for the whole quadrat was visually
estimated and each species was recorded to the nearest percent. Thus, the total for all
species and bare ground will be equaled to 100%.
The Subquadrat estimation of top cover was computed as the sum of the
results in the 25 of the 100 10cm x 10 cm subquadrat, that is, every fourth quadrat. In
obtaining the estimate of cover percentages for the 1 square meter quadrat, the mean of the
sum of the results was calculated and recorded.
The 50% method was obtained in the 100 subquadrats. Species in the quadrat
occupies greater than or equal to 50%. In this method, the summed values often lie below
100% since many subquadrats will contain a species mixed where no single species or bare
ground will reach 50%.
In the Braun-Blanquet 5 point scale, the cover of each species and bare ground
for the square meter plot was visually estimated using the following scale:
+ Very rare less than 1%
1 rare 1-5%
2 occasional 6-25%
3 frequent 26-50%
4 common 51-75%
5 abundant 76-100%
In the Domin scale, visually estimate the cover of each species for the 1 square
meter plot using the following scale:
+ A single individual
1 Scarce, 1-2 individual
2 Very scattered, cover small, less than 1%
3 Scattered, cover small 1-4%
4 Abundant, cover 5-10%

7. 7
5 Abundant, cover 11-25%
6 Abundant, cover 26-33%
7 Abundant, cover 34-50%
8 Abundant, cover 51-75%
9 Abundant, cover greater than 75% but not complete
10 Cover practically complete
In determining the Zonation and Density estimation, the calibrated 10 m
transect line was laid down across the study area by connecting two randomly selected
points. Transect line must be at least 5m distance from those of other groups. The number
of plants intercepted by the transect line were counted and identified. Begin at one end of
the line. It included those plants whose Arial foliage overlies the transect line and those
that are touched by the line or intercepted within a 1 cm strip of the line. The distance
intercepted by each plant in the line was measured with the use of the Tape measure. In
making the Zonation diagram, brackets were used to indicate the intercepted distance. Plant
height, type of substrate and depth of standing water if present, may also be noted. Also,
the side and top view images must be illustrated.
In the setup of a 100m transect line on the study area, two 10m transects per
group will be put up and placed a 1 square meter quadrat at the end of the 10m transect line
and the number of species then is being counted. Reposition the quadrat at the end of the
next transects line and estimate the number of species at each new position. There will be
a total of 10 samplings units or quadrats for the entire study area. Thus, sampling size will
be 100 square meter. Zonation and Density estimation can be computed by the following
formula:
Density of a species = No. of individuals of a species
Total area sampled
Relative Density = Density of a species x 100
Total density of all species
Dominance of a species = Total area covered by a species
Total area sampled
Relative Dominance = Dominance of a species x 100
Total dominance of all species

8. 8
Frequency of a species = No. of quadrats where a species occurs
Relative Frequency = Frequency value for a species x 100
Total frequency of all species
Importance value = relative density + relative dominance + relative frequency
In determining diversity measurements, the Simpson’s and Shannon Weiner’s
indices for measuring diversity can be used and computed using the data from different
sampling techniques on the species composition and number of individuals for species.

9. 9
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
On observation of each area covered by a number of plant species, it indicated in
our result that the larger the area increases, the number of species increases and suddenly
decreases (see table 1).
Table 1. Data for generating species area curve
Subplot
Number
Cumulative
Area Sampled
(cm^2)
Number of
Species
Number of
New Species
Cumulative
Number of
New Species
1 100 2 0 0
2 200 3 1 1
3 900 4 1 2
4 1600 6 2 4
5 2500 7 1 5
6 3600 8 1 6
7 4900 8 0 6
8 6400 9 1 7
9 8100 10 1 8
10 10000 11 1 9
Based on our observation, the highest number of species produces 11 and the
lowest number is 2 as seen in the table above. In the quadrat which consists of 100
subquadrats, the highest number of new species seen in the area was 2 that means that the
area was composed of different individuals of plant species and the lowest of new species
is 0. It does not mean that there is no species in that subquadrat, it indicates that there is no
new species being added in the 6x6 - 7x7 subquadrat.

10. 10
Figure 2. The species-area curve.
Number of species increases in the 6400 square cm and mostly they have an
equal number of species in other areas but it eventually decreases in the larger area. Starting
from the smallest area up to the first half of the whole quadrat which is 100 square cm to
5000 square cm, the graph rises rapidly than in the second half of the curve. This means
that in the beginning, more new species can be recorded and it that there is no more plant
species being added in later part. Thus, the larger the area the larger number of species
occurred in it but then suddenly decreases.
On the estimation of top cover in quadrat no. 1, it resulted that Species A has
the highest value estimated compared to that in the Species B (see Table 2).
Table 2.Estimation of top cover in quadrat no.1
Species Direct
Estimation
Subquadrat
Estimation
50%
Method
Braun -
Blanquet
Domin
Scale
1 40% 45% 40% 5 9
2
3
4
5
30%
20%
5%
5%
30%
15%
5%
5%
25%
25%
5%
5%
5
4
3
2
8
6
5
4
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
NumberofSpecies
Area (cm^2)
species

11. 11
In the above table, it can be inferred that Species 1 had dominated the area
being conducted in the sample compared to the other species 2-5. Species 1 was abundant
in the area than the rest of the species from 2-5.
On observation of the tabulation of raw data for density estimation, it resulted
that Quadrat number 1 has richer species with eight species recorded while Quadrat number
2 only had three species but with greater count of individuals included in the quadrat (see
Table 3).
Table 3.Tabulation of Raw Data for Density Estimation
Quadrat no.1 Quadrat no. 2
Species Number of
Individuals
Species Number of
Individuals
A 23 A 60
B 20 B 15
C
D
E
F
G
H
15
13
11
10
8
5
C 0
In the above table, it can be inferred that in the first quadrat, Species A has
dominated the areas being conducted for sampling and in the second quadrat, Species A
has dominated the areas being selected for sampling. Thus, Species A was abundant in
the area being conducted for sample and had dominated it.
On observation of the summary of data for density estimation, it resulted that
Species A has the highest value than other Species (see Table 4).

12. 12
Table 4. Summary of Data for Density Estimation
Species Density
Relative
Density
Dominance
Relative
Dominance
Frequency
Relative
Frequency
Importance
Value
A 23/m2 21.90% 2,500 25% 10 20.41% 67.31
B 20/m2 19.04% 2,300 23% 10 20.41% 62.45
C 15/m2 14.29% 2,000 20% 9 18.37% 52.66
D 13/m2 12.38% 1,500 15% 8 16.33% 43.71
E 11/m2 10.48% 600 6% 5 10.20% 26.68
F 10/m2 9.52% 500 5% 4 8.16% 22.68
G 8/m2 7.62% 400 4% 2 4.08% 15.7
H 5/m2 4.76% 200 2% 1 2.04% 8.8
Total 105/m2 100% 10,000 100% 49 100% 300
Based on the above table, Species A has the highest value compared to the other
species. It can be clearly seen in the table that Species A has the highest density estimation
but has an equal relative frequency with Species B. It can be inferred that Species A
dominated in the working area selected. The species richness of the quadrat is 8. The
diversity index computed is Simpson’s Diversity Index with the formula
D=∑ Pi
2 ;where P is the proportion of the species.
The computed value is 0.1932 which is close to 0 and far from 1. Simpson’s Diversity
Index value is interpreted as infinitely diverse when the value is equal to 0 and no diversity
when the value is equal to 1. The result tells us that there is a diverse species of plant
species in the grassland.
R
i=1

13. 13
CONCLUSION
This report introduces two methods which are Plot sampling and the Transect
sampling method. The species-area curve, the cover and density of plant species in a
grassland ecosystem conducted were determined with the use of quadrats and the transect
line as well as the top cover estimation methods. Based on the results, the number of species
present in the area being conducted ranges from 2-11. It can be inferred that the larger the
area, the larger number of species will occur in that area but then eventually decreases. It
can be that there is no more plant species added in the said area. In the estimation of top
cover and the tabulation of raw data for density estimation, it can be inferred that Species
A had dominated the area being conducted compared to that of the other species found
within the qaudrat. Thus, species A was abundant in the area being conducted and selected
and had dominated it. Species A also had the greatest Importance Value which could mean
of it being the keystone species in the grassland ecosystem.

14. 14
REFERENCES
Daubenmire, R.F. 1968. Grassland ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem. 2002. Retrieved on March 11, 2015. http://encyclopedia2. The
freedictionary.com/Grassland + Ecosystem
McGraw-Hill concise Encyclopedia of Bioscience ©2002 by the McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.

15. 15
COASTAL MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Assessment of Macrobenthic
Flora and Fauna in the Intertidal Area
_______________
A Scientific Paper
Presented to:
Liza A. Adamat, Ph.D.
Department of Biological Sciences
CSM, MSU – IIT
_______________
Presented by:
Shaina Mavreen D. Villaroza
In Partial Fulfillment of the course Bio 107.2 General Ecology
Second Semester 2014-2015

16. 16
ABSTRACT
Philippines has a vast territory of marine coastal water and people get their livelihood
from the abundance of the resources provided by the coastal marine ecosystem. This
ecosystem is greatly affected by many factors and any damage to it could affect the
country’s economy and therefore, people must be aware of its importance as well as
understand different methods to assess coastal bioresources to gain more knowledge
regarding its conservation. The objectives of the study is to assess the macrobenthic flora
and fauna species to correlate the relative abundance of the flora and fauna to the physico-
chemical paramaters, and to determine the ecological indices of the area. It is hypothetical
to expect the presence of macrobenthic flora and fauna in an area with good and normal
physic-chemical parameters. The study was done with the use of Quadrat and Transect
method. A 1x1m steel quadrat was laid along the calibrated transect line in every 10 meters
and algae and seagrass individuals within the quadrat were counted. Specimen sample was
collected for documentation and indentification. The physico-chemical parameters were
measured with three repeated trials using a thermometer for the water and soil temperature,
improvised psychrometer for humidity, and pH paper for the pH. Sediment grain size
analysis was conducted. Results show that there is only one species of green algae
(Chlorophyta) that was found in the area. Macrobenthic fauna is also absent. Physico-
chemical parameters were at a normal range. However, the sampling site was located in a
seaport near Mabuhay Vinyl Corporation (MVC) and the beach was also inhabited by the
locals. This means that the area is disturbed and unprotected which makes it inhabitable
for algae and especially for seagrasses.

17. 17
INTRODUCTION
Marine ecosystem are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystem. They include
oceans, salt marshes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangrove, coral reefs, the deep
sea, and the sea floor. They can be constrasted with freshwater considered ecosystems
because the land life support the animal life and vice-versa. According to Finke et al.
(2007), marine ecosystem usually have a large biodiversity and are therefore thought to
have a good resistance against invasive species. However, exceptions have been observed,
and the mechanisms responsible in determining the success of an invasion are not yet clean.
Coastal marine ecosystem are severely threatened by climate change due to changes
in sea level, storm and wave regimes, flooding, altered sediment budgets and the loss of
coastal habitat ( Harley et al. 2006; Jones, Gladstone & Hacking 2007). In the intertidal
Area, it has macrobenthic flora and fauna zonation pattern (McLachlan & Jaramillo 1995)
concluded that macrofauna and flora distribution across shore assumes the form of three
distinct and universal zones level on the distribution of characteristics taxa.
Marine environment can be characterized broadly as a water, pelagic, environment
and a bottom, or benthic environment. Within the pelagic environment the water are
divided into the neritic province, which includes the water above continental shelf, and the
oceanic province which includes all the open waters beyond the continental self.
The aim of this study is to determine the composition and relative abundance of
macrobenthic flora ( red, green, brown algae and seagrass), composition and relative
abundance of different macrobenthic faunal species, sediment type in each sampling area,
correlation between relative abundance of the flora and fauna to the physico-chemical

18. 18
parameters and ecological indeces ( Index of dominance, similarity, evenness, and
diversity).

19. 19
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This work was conducted in the beach of Buru-un, Iligan City near the Mabuhay
Vinyl Corporation Pier (Figure 1). For the assessment of the macrobenthic algae, seagrass
and macroinvertebrates. The first 10 meters of the transect line was extended perpendicular
to the shoreline with one end fixed with a wooden peg and the other end being held by a
group member. Another member positioned at the end of the 10 meter calibration of the
transect line, closed her eyes, made few turns and threw a stone in any direction. From
where the stone landed, an intersection was made with another rope to the 10 meter transect
line and the 1x1 meter square steel quadrat was thrown near the intersection aligned with
the 10-meter transect line (Figure 2.)
Figure 1.a. Location of the sampling site, Buru-un, Iligan City.

20. 20

21. 21
Figure 4.b. View of Mabuhay Vinyl Corporation (MVC) seaport from Timoga, Iligan City.
Figure 3. Representation in aerial view of the setting up of quadrat and transect for the
assessment proper.

22. 22
The number of squares with a particular algal group (red, green, or brown) and
seagrasses were counted. Observations were recorded in a field notebook. Small
representative samples were collected for every species of each algal group for
documentation. The collected specimen was placed in a plastic bag with adequate seawater
to immerse the specimen.
The physico-chemical parameters of the coastal marine ecosystem were
determined. Three readings for each parameter were recorded including the Soil and Water
Temperature, Humidity, and pH using a thermometer, improvised psychrometer, and pH
paper respectively. Sediment grain size analysis was also conducted.

23. 23
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The sampling area is a disturbed area since it is located near a pier of the Mabuhay
Vinyl Corporation seaport. The shore was also lined up with local residents making the
area unprotected and aggravated. This can be correlated with the findings after the
assessment of the macrobenthic flora and fauna in the intertidal area shown in the following
tables.
Table 1.1 Relative abundance of macrobenthic flora.
Quadrat Number Number of squares Percentage Relative Abundance
10 1 1% 100%
20 0 0% 0%
30 0 0% 0%
40 0 0% 0%
50 0 0% 0%
60 0 0% 0%
70 0 0% 0%
80 0 0% 0%
Table 1.1 indicates the number of macrobenthic flora on a certain corresponding
quadrat number and it shows that only the first quadrat with only one subquadrat covered
any macrobenthic flora. The relative abundance is 100% since there are no other species
found for it to be compared with.

24. 24
Table 1.2 Relative abundance of macrobenthic fauna.
Quadrat Number Animal Species Count Relative Abundance
10 0 0 0
20 0 0 0
30 0 0 0
40 0 0 0
50 0 0 0
60 0 0 0
70 0 0 0
On the other hand, Table 1.2 shows total absence of macrobenthic fauna. There
were absolutely no crabs, sea stars, fishes, or others found within the quadrat. This makes
the diversity and species richness of the area extremely low or zero.
Table 1.3 Physico-chemical parameters
Quadrat
Number
Temperature
(oC)
Humidity
Sediment
Type
pH
Water Soil
10 27 25 26 Sand 7
30 26 26 26 Sand 7
60 27 25 26 Sand 7
90 27 25 26 Sand 7
Table 1.3 shows the different physico-chemical parameters such as Temperature,
Humidity, Sediment Type, and pH. These parameters were obtained based on the quadrat
number 10, 30, 60 and 90. The water temperature ranges from 26-27 oC while the soil
temperature is at 25-26 oC. Humdity is generally the same around the area, as well as the
sediment type and pH. These values indicate a normal water condition. However, there is
scarcity of the macrobenthic flora and fauna in the area.

25. 25
Table 1.4 Summary Table of the Macrobenthic flora.
Quadrat Number Chlorophyta Phaeophyta Rhodophta Seagrass
Count / Relative
Abundance
Count / Relative
Abundance
Count /
Relative
Abundance
Count /
Relative
Abundance
10 1/100% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
20 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
30 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
40 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
50 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
60 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
70 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0% 0 / 0%
Only one individual of the Chlorophyta species or the green algae was found the
area. Red and brown algae as well as seagrasses were absent. Seagrasses are indicators of
the health of a body of water. Their presence means that a body of water is not polluted
and not disturbed. Seagrasses and algae are primary producers in the marine ecosystem.
They form organic food molecules from carbon dioxide and water through photosynthesis.
Any damage to the primary producers can cause imbalance in the entire marine ecosystem.
The absence of these primary producers could be the cause of the absence of the
macrobenthic fauna in the area.
Table 1.5 Ecological Indices of each Stations.
Ecological
Indices
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5
Diversity NA NA NA NA NA
Similarity NA NA NA NA NA
Evenness NA NA NA NA NA
Dominance NA NA NA NA NA
Ecological indices cannot be analyzed since only one species was found in the
entire activity.

26. 26
CONCLUSION
The general condition of the area has many different factors such as the physico-
chemical parameters (temperature, salinity, pH, humidity, organic matter, etc), weather,
altitude, and others. However, the health of a body of water doesn’t only depend on such
factors mentioned. Otherwise, it can be expected that since the sampling area had normal
physic-chemical parameters, plant and animal species must be present. The results showed
clearly the opposite. There can be correlation between physico-chemical factors and the
relative abundance such that if physico-chemical measurements fall in a normal range for
the plants and animals to thrive in, then plants and animals can live in a particular area.
Albeit, other factors such as pollution, disturbance or aggravation, overfishing,
eutrophication, climate change, and other human and natural impacts must be taken into
account in determining the total and general condition of a body of water. However, this is
outside of the scope and limitation of the study conducted, and it can be advised for further
examiners to consider such factors in the assessment of the coastal marine ecosystem.

27. 27
REFERENCES
Aranico, E., Dagoc, KM., Jimenez, B., Mag-aso, A., Responte, J.A, Tampus, A. (2004). General
Biology,. Laboratory and Field Manual in Bio. 107.2; p.65-67. Mindanao State University-
Iligan Institute of Technology, College of Science and Mathematics, Department of
Biological Science; Iligan City
Finke GR, Navarrete SA,Bozinovic F (2007) Tidal kegiro of temperate coasts and their influences
in
aerial exposure for intertidal organisms Marine Ecology Progress Series, 34.3; 57-62
Harley, C.D.G, Randall Hughes, A, Hultgren, K.M., Miner, B.G, Sorte, C.J.B., Thornber, C.S.,
Rodriguez, L.F., Tomek, L. Z. Williams, S, L. (2006). The impacts of climate change in
coastal marine ecosystems. Ecology Lotters, 9, 228-241.
Jones, A. R., Gladstone, W. & Hacking, N.J. (2007) Australian sandy-beach ecosystems and
climate
change: ecology and management Australian Zoologist, 34, 190-201.
McLachlan, A. & Jaramillo E. 1995. Zonation on sandy beaches; oceanorgr. Mar . Biol, a arev.
33:395-335
http: //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_ecosystem