The document provides key information about investigating populations, including methods such as using quadrats, transects, mark-release-recapture, and analyzing data. Quadrats can be point quadrats or frame quadrats, and random or systematic sampling is important. Population size is limited by factors like food, water, disease, and predators. Population growth follows a typical curve with three phases: slow growth, rapid growth, and a stable state. Abiotic factors like temperature and light also influence population size.
The basics of plant propagation and techniques for successful asexual propagation. Contents primarily focus on asexual propagation. Fruit seedlings; trees; Flowers
Genetic Engineering of Male Sterility for Hybrid Seed Production # Methods of Hybrid Seed Production - Hybridization techniques # Examples of Male Sterile Hybrid Seed
Vegetable Gardens - Kitchen Garden or Nutrition Garden; Gardening Guidebook for India ~ Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India~ For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica
http://scribd.com/doc/239850233
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants by Vegetative/Asexual PropagationDivya Sree M S
This document discusses various methods of vegetative or asexual propagation for cultivating medicinal plants. It describes natural propagation methods using plant parts like bulbs, tubers, and rhizomes. It also details several artificial propagation techniques including cuttings, layering, division, grafting, budding, and micropropagation. Micropropagation uses plant tissue culture to rapidly multiply stock plant material. Fermentation is also discussed as a method to commercially produce some medicinal fungi using biotechnology that yields products similar to wild varieties. Advantages of asexual propagation include maintenance of plants and high yields, while disadvantages include lack of genetic diversity and reduced adaptation to environmental changes.
Propagation methods of Important Medicinal Plantsvandanashukla18
Propagation methods for Azadirachta indica, Rauvolfia serpentina,Terminalia chebula,Terminalia bellirica, Embelica officinalis by seeds and other vegetative parts.
Edible Wild Plants by Umesh Srivastava, Ex ICAR, Indiaapaari
Edible Wild Plants by Umesh Srivastava, Ex ICAR, India - Regional Expert Consultation on Underutilized Crops for Food and Nutritional Security in Asia and the Pacific November 13-15, 2017, Bangkok
Cultivation of medicinal plants by Seed / Sexual PropagationDivya Sree M S
This document discusses seed propagation as a method for cultivating medicinal plants. It notes that seed propagation involves raising plants from seeds but has drawbacks like loss during transplantation and failure to germinate due to natural or physical inhibitors. It then describes various techniques to address germination issues like soaking seeds in chemicals or abrasion. Finally, it outlines different methods of seed propagation like broadcasting, dibbling, drilling, and using nursery beds and their advantages and disadvantages.
The basics of plant propagation and techniques for successful asexual propagation. Contents primarily focus on asexual propagation. Fruit seedlings; trees; Flowers
Genetic Engineering of Male Sterility for Hybrid Seed Production # Methods of Hybrid Seed Production - Hybridization techniques # Examples of Male Sterile Hybrid Seed
Vegetable Gardens - Kitchen Garden or Nutrition Garden; Gardening Guidebook for India ~ Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India~ For more information, Please see websites below:
`
Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851214 ~
`
Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851079 ~
`
Free School Gardening Art Posters =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851159 ~
`
Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851348 ~
`
City Chickens for your Organic School Garden =
http://scribd.com/doc/239850440 ~
`
Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica
http://scribd.com/doc/239850233
`
Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide =
http://scribd.com/doc/239851110
Cultivation of Medicinal Plants by Vegetative/Asexual PropagationDivya Sree M S
This document discusses various methods of vegetative or asexual propagation for cultivating medicinal plants. It describes natural propagation methods using plant parts like bulbs, tubers, and rhizomes. It also details several artificial propagation techniques including cuttings, layering, division, grafting, budding, and micropropagation. Micropropagation uses plant tissue culture to rapidly multiply stock plant material. Fermentation is also discussed as a method to commercially produce some medicinal fungi using biotechnology that yields products similar to wild varieties. Advantages of asexual propagation include maintenance of plants and high yields, while disadvantages include lack of genetic diversity and reduced adaptation to environmental changes.
Propagation methods of Important Medicinal Plantsvandanashukla18
Propagation methods for Azadirachta indica, Rauvolfia serpentina,Terminalia chebula,Terminalia bellirica, Embelica officinalis by seeds and other vegetative parts.
Edible Wild Plants by Umesh Srivastava, Ex ICAR, Indiaapaari
Edible Wild Plants by Umesh Srivastava, Ex ICAR, India - Regional Expert Consultation on Underutilized Crops for Food and Nutritional Security in Asia and the Pacific November 13-15, 2017, Bangkok
Cultivation of medicinal plants by Seed / Sexual PropagationDivya Sree M S
This document discusses seed propagation as a method for cultivating medicinal plants. It notes that seed propagation involves raising plants from seeds but has drawbacks like loss during transplantation and failure to germinate due to natural or physical inhibitors. It then describes various techniques to address germination issues like soaking seeds in chemicals or abrasion. Finally, it outlines different methods of seed propagation like broadcasting, dibbling, drilling, and using nursery beds and their advantages and disadvantages.
This document provides an overview of post-harvest technology in horticulture. It defines post-harvest technology as the science and techniques applied to agricultural produce after harvest to protect, conserve, process, package, distribute, market and utilize it to meet nutritional needs. It discusses the necessities of post-harvest technology such as preventing losses, adding value and supporting local employment. It then outlines typical post-harvest operations and the primary and secondary causes of post-harvest losses. The document also shows annual wastage percentages for some commodities in India and discusses some relevant government schemes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojna that focus on post-harvest
The seed plot technique is used to produce healthy potato seed with low virus incidence. It involves selecting virus-free plants and storing their tubers separately to plant in isolated seed plots during periods of low aphid activity. This technique produces 2600 tons of breeder seed annually in India, saving $484 million by reducing seed imports. Studies show seed plot systems yield 6-15% higher than normal cultivation practices in Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia.
This document discusses various vegetative propagation techniques used in horticulture, including cutting, layering, grafting and budding. It describes different types of cuttings like stem cuttings, leaf cuttings and root cuttings. It also explains different layering techniques like simple layering, air layering, mound layering and trench layering. Rooting hormones and rooting media used for vegetative propagation are also discussed in detail.
This document provides information about Momordica cochinchinensis (sweet gourd). It discusses the origin, botany, nutritional value, health benefits, cultivation practices, breeding objectives, and research on propagating it in vitro. Specifically, it explores sterilizing seeds both with and without their dense coats to initiate growth in liquid and solid media. Within 16 days of cultivation, cotyledons opened and roots formed intensely, showing potential for micropropagation of this valuable crop with low germination rates.
02 designing of experiments and analysis of data in plant genetic resource ma...Indranil Bhattacharjee
This document discusses experimental design considerations for plant genetic resource evaluation trials. Such trials aim to identify promising new germplasm by comparing test treatments (new selections) to control treatments (existing varieties). Key challenges include limited seed availability and a large number of accessions to test. Augmented designs are commonly used, with test treatments unreplicated and controls replicated in blocks. Indices are developed to objectively compare test and control yields while accounting for spatial heterogeneity. Multivariate analysis and genetic distance measures can further characterize genetic diversity among accessions. Combined analysis of multi-location trials tests for genotype by environment interaction and identifies broadly adaptable lines.
Recent advances and commercial propagation technique in fruit cropsPawan Nagar
Recent advances and commercial propagation techniques in fruit crops are discussed. Asexual propagation methods like stem cuttings, layering, grafting, and tissue culture are described as they allow for reproducing exact duplicates of desirable plants and increasing quality. Tissue culture, also called micropropagation, is highlighted as it provides a rapid means of clonally propagating plants using small explants in sterile culture.
POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTSSubham Dwivedi
This document discusses the post-harvest management of medicinal and aromatic plants. It describes that post-harvest management includes cleaning, sorting, packaging, storage, transportation and distribution of harvested crops. It provides technical details of harvesting, drying, packing, storage, transportation and the equipment used. It emphasizes the importance of hygiene, cleaning, sorting and grading of harvested materials and stresses the need for training of personnel involved in post-harvest activities.
This document summarizes the biodiversity of plum species. It discusses five centres of origin for plums in Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, China, and North America. It outlines various plum species including Prunus domestica, P. salicina, P. americana, and their traits. It also discusses classification of plums, genetic resources, distribution in India, interspecific hybrids, and important cultivars. Rootstocks commonly used for plums are also listed. The document provides a comprehensive overview of plum biodiversity and cultivation globally and in India.
Invitro mutation selection for biotic stresses in Plantsamvannan
In-vitro selection is a somaclonal variation method that uses a selection agent or particular condition to select for somaclones with a desired character. Various mutagens like gamma irradiation, chemicals, and transposons can be used to induce mutations in vitro. Somatic embryogenesis is advantageous for in-vitro selection as it allows treatment of large populations and rapid generation of non-chimeric plants. Chemical mutagens are commonly used for in-vitro selection due to ease of handling. In-vitro selection has been used successfully to obtain disease resistance in various crop species like tobacco, rice, wheat, and potato.
1) Fruit and nut trees are pruned and trained to develop a strong structure that can support heavy crops without breaking. Pruning is also needed to maintain size, remove undesirable growth, and stimulate flowering and fruiting.
2) It is important to understand tree structures like the central leader, scaffold branches, and branch attachments when pruning. V-shaped crotches are weak while U-shaped crotches are strong. Watersprouts, suckers, and crossing branches should be removed.
3) When pruning large limbs, an undercut should be made followed by a cut further out on the limb to allow it to swing away from the tree before being cut off close to the trunk to avoid stripping bark
Development of climate resilient crops / agricultureAmol Gaikwad
This document discusses developing climate-resilient crops through harnessing genetic variability. It begins with an introduction to climate change impacts on agriculture and the importance of breeding resilient crops. It then explores genetic variability as the foundation for crop improvement, describing sources of variability like natural mutations, crossbreeding, and genetic engineering. Common breeding approaches are discussed, such as mutation breeding, hybridization, marker-assisted selection, and genetic engineering. Examples are given of climate-resilient crops developed through these methods, including drought-tolerant maize, heat-tolerant wheat, flood-tolerant rice, and salinity-tolerant crops. The document concludes by emphasizing how genetic variability enables developing crops adapted to changing climates,
INVITRO CULTURE: TECHNIQUES, APPLICATIOSNS & ACHIEVEMENTS.
INVITRO TECHNIQUES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY USE IN AGRICULTURE AND CROP IMPROVEMENT. APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS BIOTECHNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES AND METHODS. TISSUE CULTURE, MICROPROPAGATION, EMBRYO CULTURE, ANTHER CULTURE, POLLEN CULTURE, ENDOSPERM CULTURE, OVULE CULTURE, OVARY CULTURE, ETC.
A review on medicinal plants with Antidiabetic activity.Mohd Asad Farooqui
Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high. Glucose comes from the foods you eat. Insulin is a hormone that helps the glucose get into your cells to give them energy. With type 1 diabetes, your body does not make insulin.
Coffee is a crop cultivated primarily in southern India. There are two main species - Arabica and Robusta. Arabica grows at higher elevations between 900-1200 meters and produces higher quality coffee, while Robusta grows at lower elevations and is more resilient. The document provides detailed information on the morphology, varieties, and management of coffee plants. It describes the plant structure including leaves, flowers, fruits, and berries and lists commercially important Arabica and Robusta varieties. It also includes a monthly management time table outlining operations such as harvesting, pruning, pest control, and nursery activities.
This presentation summarizes research on interspecific hybridization between Atlantic salmon and brown trout. The study examined hybridization in rivers in northern Spain where one species colonized areas inhabited by the other. When Atlantic salmon colonized brown trout areas, 5-10% of juveniles were found to be hybrids, with Atlantic salmon as the maternal species. Similarly, when brown trout colonized an area, 5-7% of juveniles were hybrids with brown trout as the maternal species. The research suggests that the colonizing female species exhibits relaxed mate choice, leading to initial hybridization. However, as the colonizing species expands, hybridization decreases or changes direction. Introgression between the species occurs at low levels and is unlikely
The Principles and Practices of Organic Beet Seed Production in the Pacific N...Seeds
This document provides information about organic beet seed production, including:
1) It discusses two methods for producing beet seed - the "seed-to-seed" method, where beet seed is planted and overwintered in the field, and the "root-to-seed" method, where beet roots are harvested, overwintered, and replanted to produce seed.
2) It describes the ideal climate and soil conditions for beet seed production, noting cool spring temperatures are best for vegetative growth while cooler, dryer summer weather supports pollination and seed development.
3) It explains the beet lifecycle as a biennial plant, producing leaves the first year and flowering the second year after a
Impact of drought and heat stress on reproductive process of crop plantsPavan R
This document discusses abiotic stress tolerance in crops. It provides information on different types of abiotic stresses plants face, including drought, heat, salinity, flooding, and others. It discusses the effects of these stresses at different stages of plant growth and reproduction. Strategies to improve abiotic stress tolerance through conventional breeding, molecular breeding, and genetic engineering are presented. These include improving traits like water use efficiency, osmotic adjustment, wax production, and expression of protective proteins and transcription factors. An integrated approach combining various methods is needed to develop stress-tolerant crop varieties to address climate change impacts.
This document summarizes the organic cultivation of potatoes. It discusses how potatoes can be grown organically as part of a crop rotation on an organic farm. Some key challenges of organic potato cultivation include providing adequate nutrients without artificial fertilizers, preventing potato blight without synthetic fungicides, and controlling weeds without chemical herbicides. The document then provides details on variety selection, soil preparation, planting, irrigation, manuring, weed control, pest and disease management, harvesting, storage and expected yields for organic potato cultivation.
This document provides information on various topics in biology including populations, ATP, photosynthesis, respiration, and energy and ecosystems. It begins by defining key terms related to populations such as ecology, ecosystem, habitat, niche, biotic and abiotic factors, and types of competition. It then discusses methods for investigating populations such as quadrats, random sampling, and mark-release-recapture. Subsequent sections cover human populations, birth and death rates, ATP and energy, the light-dependent and light-independent stages of photosynthesis, aerobic and anaerobic respiration including glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and coenzymes. The document concludes with a brief section on energy
This document provides definitions and methods for investigating populations in biology. It defines key terms like ecosystem, population, community and habitat. It describes how to use quadrats and transects to sample populations through random and systematic sampling. Methods covered include measuring abundance through frequency and percentage cover, and using mark-release-recapture to determine population size. Population growth curves and factors influencing population sizes like temperature, light, pH, water and humidity are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of post-harvest technology in horticulture. It defines post-harvest technology as the science and techniques applied to agricultural produce after harvest to protect, conserve, process, package, distribute, market and utilize it to meet nutritional needs. It discusses the necessities of post-harvest technology such as preventing losses, adding value and supporting local employment. It then outlines typical post-harvest operations and the primary and secondary causes of post-harvest losses. The document also shows annual wastage percentages for some commodities in India and discusses some relevant government schemes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojna that focus on post-harvest
The seed plot technique is used to produce healthy potato seed with low virus incidence. It involves selecting virus-free plants and storing their tubers separately to plant in isolated seed plots during periods of low aphid activity. This technique produces 2600 tons of breeder seed annually in India, saving $484 million by reducing seed imports. Studies show seed plot systems yield 6-15% higher than normal cultivation practices in Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia.
This document discusses various vegetative propagation techniques used in horticulture, including cutting, layering, grafting and budding. It describes different types of cuttings like stem cuttings, leaf cuttings and root cuttings. It also explains different layering techniques like simple layering, air layering, mound layering and trench layering. Rooting hormones and rooting media used for vegetative propagation are also discussed in detail.
This document provides information about Momordica cochinchinensis (sweet gourd). It discusses the origin, botany, nutritional value, health benefits, cultivation practices, breeding objectives, and research on propagating it in vitro. Specifically, it explores sterilizing seeds both with and without their dense coats to initiate growth in liquid and solid media. Within 16 days of cultivation, cotyledons opened and roots formed intensely, showing potential for micropropagation of this valuable crop with low germination rates.
02 designing of experiments and analysis of data in plant genetic resource ma...Indranil Bhattacharjee
This document discusses experimental design considerations for plant genetic resource evaluation trials. Such trials aim to identify promising new germplasm by comparing test treatments (new selections) to control treatments (existing varieties). Key challenges include limited seed availability and a large number of accessions to test. Augmented designs are commonly used, with test treatments unreplicated and controls replicated in blocks. Indices are developed to objectively compare test and control yields while accounting for spatial heterogeneity. Multivariate analysis and genetic distance measures can further characterize genetic diversity among accessions. Combined analysis of multi-location trials tests for genotype by environment interaction and identifies broadly adaptable lines.
Recent advances and commercial propagation technique in fruit cropsPawan Nagar
Recent advances and commercial propagation techniques in fruit crops are discussed. Asexual propagation methods like stem cuttings, layering, grafting, and tissue culture are described as they allow for reproducing exact duplicates of desirable plants and increasing quality. Tissue culture, also called micropropagation, is highlighted as it provides a rapid means of clonally propagating plants using small explants in sterile culture.
POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTSSubham Dwivedi
This document discusses the post-harvest management of medicinal and aromatic plants. It describes that post-harvest management includes cleaning, sorting, packaging, storage, transportation and distribution of harvested crops. It provides technical details of harvesting, drying, packing, storage, transportation and the equipment used. It emphasizes the importance of hygiene, cleaning, sorting and grading of harvested materials and stresses the need for training of personnel involved in post-harvest activities.
This document summarizes the biodiversity of plum species. It discusses five centres of origin for plums in Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, China, and North America. It outlines various plum species including Prunus domestica, P. salicina, P. americana, and their traits. It also discusses classification of plums, genetic resources, distribution in India, interspecific hybrids, and important cultivars. Rootstocks commonly used for plums are also listed. The document provides a comprehensive overview of plum biodiversity and cultivation globally and in India.
Invitro mutation selection for biotic stresses in Plantsamvannan
In-vitro selection is a somaclonal variation method that uses a selection agent or particular condition to select for somaclones with a desired character. Various mutagens like gamma irradiation, chemicals, and transposons can be used to induce mutations in vitro. Somatic embryogenesis is advantageous for in-vitro selection as it allows treatment of large populations and rapid generation of non-chimeric plants. Chemical mutagens are commonly used for in-vitro selection due to ease of handling. In-vitro selection has been used successfully to obtain disease resistance in various crop species like tobacco, rice, wheat, and potato.
1) Fruit and nut trees are pruned and trained to develop a strong structure that can support heavy crops without breaking. Pruning is also needed to maintain size, remove undesirable growth, and stimulate flowering and fruiting.
2) It is important to understand tree structures like the central leader, scaffold branches, and branch attachments when pruning. V-shaped crotches are weak while U-shaped crotches are strong. Watersprouts, suckers, and crossing branches should be removed.
3) When pruning large limbs, an undercut should be made followed by a cut further out on the limb to allow it to swing away from the tree before being cut off close to the trunk to avoid stripping bark
Development of climate resilient crops / agricultureAmol Gaikwad
This document discusses developing climate-resilient crops through harnessing genetic variability. It begins with an introduction to climate change impacts on agriculture and the importance of breeding resilient crops. It then explores genetic variability as the foundation for crop improvement, describing sources of variability like natural mutations, crossbreeding, and genetic engineering. Common breeding approaches are discussed, such as mutation breeding, hybridization, marker-assisted selection, and genetic engineering. Examples are given of climate-resilient crops developed through these methods, including drought-tolerant maize, heat-tolerant wheat, flood-tolerant rice, and salinity-tolerant crops. The document concludes by emphasizing how genetic variability enables developing crops adapted to changing climates,
INVITRO CULTURE: TECHNIQUES, APPLICATIOSNS & ACHIEVEMENTS.
INVITRO TECHNIQUES AND BIOTECHNOLOGY USE IN AGRICULTURE AND CROP IMPROVEMENT. APPLICATIONS OF VARIOUS BIOTECHNOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES AND METHODS. TISSUE CULTURE, MICROPROPAGATION, EMBRYO CULTURE, ANTHER CULTURE, POLLEN CULTURE, ENDOSPERM CULTURE, OVULE CULTURE, OVARY CULTURE, ETC.
A review on medicinal plants with Antidiabetic activity.Mohd Asad Farooqui
Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high. Glucose comes from the foods you eat. Insulin is a hormone that helps the glucose get into your cells to give them energy. With type 1 diabetes, your body does not make insulin.
Coffee is a crop cultivated primarily in southern India. There are two main species - Arabica and Robusta. Arabica grows at higher elevations between 900-1200 meters and produces higher quality coffee, while Robusta grows at lower elevations and is more resilient. The document provides detailed information on the morphology, varieties, and management of coffee plants. It describes the plant structure including leaves, flowers, fruits, and berries and lists commercially important Arabica and Robusta varieties. It also includes a monthly management time table outlining operations such as harvesting, pruning, pest control, and nursery activities.
This presentation summarizes research on interspecific hybridization between Atlantic salmon and brown trout. The study examined hybridization in rivers in northern Spain where one species colonized areas inhabited by the other. When Atlantic salmon colonized brown trout areas, 5-10% of juveniles were found to be hybrids, with Atlantic salmon as the maternal species. Similarly, when brown trout colonized an area, 5-7% of juveniles were hybrids with brown trout as the maternal species. The research suggests that the colonizing female species exhibits relaxed mate choice, leading to initial hybridization. However, as the colonizing species expands, hybridization decreases or changes direction. Introgression between the species occurs at low levels and is unlikely
The Principles and Practices of Organic Beet Seed Production in the Pacific N...Seeds
This document provides information about organic beet seed production, including:
1) It discusses two methods for producing beet seed - the "seed-to-seed" method, where beet seed is planted and overwintered in the field, and the "root-to-seed" method, where beet roots are harvested, overwintered, and replanted to produce seed.
2) It describes the ideal climate and soil conditions for beet seed production, noting cool spring temperatures are best for vegetative growth while cooler, dryer summer weather supports pollination and seed development.
3) It explains the beet lifecycle as a biennial plant, producing leaves the first year and flowering the second year after a
Impact of drought and heat stress on reproductive process of crop plantsPavan R
This document discusses abiotic stress tolerance in crops. It provides information on different types of abiotic stresses plants face, including drought, heat, salinity, flooding, and others. It discusses the effects of these stresses at different stages of plant growth and reproduction. Strategies to improve abiotic stress tolerance through conventional breeding, molecular breeding, and genetic engineering are presented. These include improving traits like water use efficiency, osmotic adjustment, wax production, and expression of protective proteins and transcription factors. An integrated approach combining various methods is needed to develop stress-tolerant crop varieties to address climate change impacts.
This document summarizes the organic cultivation of potatoes. It discusses how potatoes can be grown organically as part of a crop rotation on an organic farm. Some key challenges of organic potato cultivation include providing adequate nutrients without artificial fertilizers, preventing potato blight without synthetic fungicides, and controlling weeds without chemical herbicides. The document then provides details on variety selection, soil preparation, planting, irrigation, manuring, weed control, pest and disease management, harvesting, storage and expected yields for organic potato cultivation.
This document provides information on various topics in biology including populations, ATP, photosynthesis, respiration, and energy and ecosystems. It begins by defining key terms related to populations such as ecology, ecosystem, habitat, niche, biotic and abiotic factors, and types of competition. It then discusses methods for investigating populations such as quadrats, random sampling, and mark-release-recapture. Subsequent sections cover human populations, birth and death rates, ATP and energy, the light-dependent and light-independent stages of photosynthesis, aerobic and anaerobic respiration including glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, electron transport chain, and coenzymes. The document concludes with a brief section on energy
This document provides definitions and methods for investigating populations in biology. It defines key terms like ecosystem, population, community and habitat. It describes how to use quadrats and transects to sample populations through random and systematic sampling. Methods covered include measuring abundance through frequency and percentage cover, and using mark-release-recapture to determine population size. Population growth curves and factors influencing population sizes like temperature, light, pH, water and humidity are also summarized.
Plants use photosynthesis to produce their own food. The process requires carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. Chlorophyll in the leaves captures light energy which is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose, the plant's food. Oxygen is released as a byproduct. Plants take in carbon dioxide through stomata in their leaves and water and minerals through their roots.
The document discusses the kidney and osmoregulation. It begins by stating that all animals excrete nitrogenous waste products and some also balance water and solute concentrations. It then provides guidance on various understanding goals related to the kidney and osmoregulation, including how the kidney and Malpighian tubule system carry out these functions. It also includes diagrams of the nephron and descriptions of processes like ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule.
The document discusses the kidney and its functions. The kidney filters waste from the blood and regulates fluid balance and electrolyte levels in the body. It removes waste from the blood in the form of urine and excretes it from the body. The kidney also helps regulate blood pressure and produces hormones that help make red blood cells and activate vitamin D.
Abundance can be measured in several ways, including by frequency, which is the likelihood of a species occurring in a quadrat, and percentage cover, which estimates the area within a quadrat covered by a species. When measuring abundance, it is important to use a large sample size and calculate the mean in order to obtain an accurate understanding of the number of individuals of a species within a given space.
When Weeds Keep Winning Just Keep Swimming by Erin Lake Cream of the Crop 2009Art4Agriculture
Erin Lake conducted a study on private land management practices in Jamberoo Valley, NSW. She interviewed landholders and assessed weed presence. She found many new landholders lack experience managing environmental issues like weeds. Weeds negatively impact agriculture, native plants and ecosystems. Landholders use restoration techniques like weed removal and native plantings. Effective management requires achievable goals and cooperation. While weeds are problematic, landholders can improve ecosystems over time through sustained, small-scale efforts.
The document discusses several landforms that can result from river rejuvenation caused by a fall in sea level. Knick points form as steps where the river erodes downward to adjust to the new base level, and may create waterfalls. River terraces are abandoned floodplains left at higher levels after the river cuts down through deposits. Incised or enclosed meanders develop when the river maintains its meandering pattern while increasing vertical erosion.
Population size is determined by a balance between birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration. Population change is measured as the difference in population size between the beginning and end of a time period, usually one year. The crude birth rate and crude death rate measure live births and deaths per 1,000 people respectively, and natural population change is calculated as births minus deaths. Actual population change also takes into account net migration. Factors like fertility rates, mortality rates, and life expectancy provide more detail on changes in birth and death rates over time.
This document discusses two methods for estimating population size: the Lincoln Index and the quadrat method. The Lincoln Index involves capturing, marking, and recapturing a sample of individuals to estimate the total population size using a calculation. The quadrat method involves randomly placing quadrats (sample areas) throughout a total area and counting individuals within each quadrat. The mean number of individuals per quadrat is then extrapolated to the total area to estimate the overall population size.
The document provides definitions and information about ecology, populations, sampling strategies, the carbon and nitrogen cycles, ecosystems, and conservation. It defines key terms like habitat, population, community, ecosystem, producer, consumer, decomposer. It describes methods for investigating populations like quadrats and transects. It explains population changes, food chains, energy transfer between trophic levels, and ecological pyramids. It also discusses factors that affect population size, human populations, and succession.
The document provides information on the Harvard referencing system, including what a reference is, what the Harvard system is, why one should reference their work, when to reference, and how to reference both within the text and at the end of the document. It describes referencing various sources such as books, journal articles, web pages, images, and personal communications. It also discusses plagiarism and how to avoid it by properly citing sources.
This document provides information on various biology topics:
- Causes of variation including genetic and environmental sources of intraspecific variation
- The processes of mitosis, meiosis, genetic bottlenecks, and the founder effect
- The life cycle of a cell and stages of the cell cycle
- How DNA is structured and its function in coding for proteins
- The processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation
- Plant gas exchange and transport of water and minerals in plants
Energy flows through ecosystems via food chains and webs. Producers, like plants, capture energy from the sun and convert it to chemical energy during photosynthesis. Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms and are classified as herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores based on their diets. Energy and nutrients transfer between trophic levels with about 10% traveling to the next level, resulting in pyramids of numbers and biomass that narrow with each increasing trophic level. Key nutrients like carbon and nitrogen cycle through abiotic and biotic factors, being used and reused by different organisms in ecosystems.
Geography as revision rivers floods and managementklaudia666
The document discusses key concepts related to physical geography and river flooding. It defines important terms like precipitation, infiltration, overland flow, and hydrographs. It describes the hydrological cycle within a drainage basin and factors that influence flooding, like vegetation, geology, and urbanization. Engineering strategies for flood management are outlined, including soft techniques like reforestation and hard techniques like dams and flood relief channels. Case studies on flooding in Hull, China, and Tewkesbury analyze both physical and human causes and impacts.
The document summarizes information about photosynthesis and ATP. It discusses:
1) ATP provides the immediate energy for biological processes through the hydrolysis of its phosphate bonds. ATP is continuously regenerated through photophosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and substrate-level phosphorylation.
2) Photosynthesis has two stages - the light-dependent reaction where light energy is captured by chlorophyll and electrons are used to generate ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reaction where ATP and NADPH are used to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.
3) Limiting factors like temperature, carbon dioxide concentration, and light intensity affect the rate of photosynthesis, and commercial greenhouses control these factors to enhance plant
This document discusses cell tissues and organs. It begins by introducing specialized cells which are adapted to perform specific roles. Different types of tissues work together to form organs. The main tissues in animals and plants are described including epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissues. Examples of plant organs like leaves and flowers and animal organs like the alimentary canal and heart are provided. Finally, the major organ systems and their functions are outlined.
The document discusses how heart rate is controlled by the nervous system via two centres in the brain - one that increases heart rate via the sympathetic nervous system, and one that decreases it via the parasympathetic nervous system. These centres are stimulated by two types of receptors: chemoreceptors that detect chemical changes in the blood, and baroreceptors that detect pressure changes. Chemoreceptors stimulate the centre that increases heart rate when carbon dioxide levels rise, increasing heart rate to remove carbon dioxide faster. Baroreceptors stimulate the centre that decreases heart rate when blood pressure is high, and the centre that increases it when pressure is low.
Unit 2 – Section 1 discusses variation and sampling. It explains that sampling involves taking measurements from individuals in a population to represent the whole population, but bias or chance may make the sample unrepresentative. Random sampling using a grid and coordinates can prevent bias. Increasing sample size and using statistical tests improves reliability and determines if variation is due to chance.
Section 2 describes DNA structure. Nucleotides contain sugar, phosphate, and a base that pairs with another base through hydrogen bonding to form the DNA double helix. Genes are sections of DNA that code for proteins. The triplet code means every 3 bases codes for an amino acid. Chromosomes contain DNA and package it for cell division.
This document provides definitions of key ecology terms like ecosystem, population, community, habitat, and ecological niche. It also describes methods for investigating populations, including using quadrats, transects, and mark-release-recapture. Population growth curves are explained as lag phase, log phase, and stationary phase. Finally, abiotic factors that influence populations like temperature, light, pH, water, and humidity are listed.
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment. A population is a group of the same species that lives in a defined area, and multiple populations make up a biological community. An ecosystem consists of all the living and non-living things in a particular environment that interact, such as a rainforest. Ecosystems are influenced by biotic factors like competition and symbiosis between organisms, as well as abiotic factors like climate and resources. Population growth follows a sigmoid curve as it increases rapidly at first but then levels off at the environment's carrying capacity.
Quadrats can be used to estimate population size and distribution of organisms. They are frames divided into squares that are randomly placed in a habitat to count individuals or percentage cover of a species. This provides a representative sample that can be scaled up and used to compare species in one area or a species across areas. Only about 10% of energy is transferred between trophic levels in a food chain due to energy losses through respiration and thermal energy. This limits food chain length and explains the pyramid shape of biomass and numbers.
This document defines key terms related to ecology, including abiotic and biotic factors, producers, consumers, decomposers, niches, food webs, succession, sampling methods, and population estimation techniques. It discusses various abiotic factors like temperature, light availability, and water that influence organisms. Biotic factors include predation, competition, and disease. Sampling methods are described for estimating populations and community characteristics, including quadrat sampling, transects, and capture-mark-recapture for animals.
Here are three methods for measuring abiotic factors in marine ecosystems:
1. Temperature - Use a thermometer or temperature probe to measure water temperature at various depths. Thermometers provide an instant reading while probes can record temperature over time to monitor fluctuations.
2. Salinity - Use a refractometer or salinometer to measure the amount of dissolved salts in seawater. Refractometers pass a light beam through a water sample; salinity is read based on how much the beam bends. Salinometers use electrical conductivity.
3. Light - Use a light meter or underwater quantum sensor to measure photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) at different depths. PAR is the wavelength of light used by plants for
This document discusses biodiversity, including its definition, components, and methods for measuring it. Biodiversity refers to the variety of species, habitats, and genetic diversity in an area. It can be measured by species diversity, habitat diversity, and genetic diversity. Methods for measuring biodiversity include counting species richness, calculating Simpson's Diversity Index using population data from quadrats, mark-recapture studies using the Lincoln Index, and chemical fogging to sample canopy insects. Global patterns of biodiversity are also addressed.
Population ecology examines populations as units of study. A population has characteristics like density, size, age structure, and dispersion. The four basic population parameters that affect density are natality, mortality, immigration, and emigration. Techniques to estimate population density include using quadrats, capture-recapture methods, and calculating relative density with tools like traps or roadside counts. Life tables can describe mortality schedules by tracking age-specific cohort survival. Population growth rates depend on birth and death rates, and can be modeled exponentially or logistically depending on environmental constraints.
The document outlines several key concepts in ecology and conservation including:
1. Factors that affect the distribution of plant and animal species such as temperature, water, light, soil pH, breeding sites, and food supply.
2. Methods for measuring ecological concepts like biomass, primary production, trophic levels, and ecological succession.
3. The major biomes of the world and how abiotic factors like temperature and rainfall affect their distribution.
4. Reasons for biodiversity conservation using rainforests as an example, including ethical, ecological, economic, and aesthetic arguments. Accelerating extinction rates are threatening many species.
This document provides learning targets and key concepts for a unit on principles of ecology. It begins by listing several learning targets related to evaluating evidence about how ecosystems maintain organisms, designing solutions to reduce human impacts, and analyzing data about climate change and human activity. The next section defines key terms in ecology like organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biome. It also discusses food chains, food webs, producers and consumers, and matter and energy cycling in ecosystems. The document aims to teach students key principles of ecology through defining important concepts and having them apply their understanding to analyze scenarios.
Population dynamics refers to how populations change over time. A population is a group of the same species occupying an area for a period. Population characteristics include density, spatial distribution, range, and reproduction patterns. Density-independent factors like weather affect populations regardless of size, while density-dependent factors like disease depend on population number. Birth rate, death rate, immigration, and emigration influence population change. Ecosystem stability relies on resistance to environmental changes and resilience in regaining function after disturbance. Species richness and keystone species promote stability.
Plant sampling methods include transects, quadrats, and aerial observations. Transects measure vegetation variation along a line, showing how plant communities change with the environment. Quadrats quantify plant coverage and abundance within a grid. Both methods are used to measure density, coverage, frequency, biomass, and diversity of plant populations. Sampling provides a representative view of a whole community and avoids bias.
This document provides information about ecosystems and the relationships within them. It discusses how organisms interact with biotic and abiotic factors in their environment. Key concepts covered include producers and consumers, symbiotic relationships between species, limiting factors on population growth, and the cycling of matter like carbon, nitrogen, and water through ecosystems.
Cape biology uni 2 -_ecosystems_population_ecology_and_practical_methods_of_e...Hilton Ritch
This document discusses methods for estimating population sizes and distributions in ecology. It explains that directly counting all individuals in a population is often impossible, so sampling techniques are used instead to estimate population parameters. Common sampling methods described include quadrat sampling, transect sampling, and mark-release-recapture. Factors that influence the accuracy of population estimates, such as sample size and randomization, are also discussed.
The document provides an overview of key concepts in ecology, including interactions within populations, communities and ecosystems; nutrient cycling and energy flow; and the effects of natural and human impacts. It defines important terms like biomes, species, populations, communities, ecosystems, niches, food chains, trophic levels and food webs. It also describes population, community and ecosystem levels of organization, and examines habitat versus niche, limiting factors, feeding relationships including producers, consumers, decomposers, and symbiotic relationships like commensalism, parasitism and mutualism. Finally, it discusses trophic levels and pyramids, nutrient cycles of water, carbon and nitrogen, and how toxins can biologically magnify up food chains
This document summarizes key concepts in ecology related to variability in organisms and populations. It discusses how genetic variability and environmental heterogeneity lead to no two organisms or species being identical. It also describes metapopulation dynamics and how populations are maintained through dispersal and the processes of extinction and recolonization between habitat patches. Finally, it discusses scaling relationships in biology from molecules to ecosystems and how metabolic theory can help explain ecological patterns and processes across levels of organization.
The biosphere encompasses all life on Earth and its environments. Ecology is the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. The biosphere contains interconnected levels of organization from the global biome level down to populations and individuals within ecosystems. Ecosystem diversity is determined by factors like size, latitude, and available energy from primary producers like plants. Ecologists study ecosystems through observation, experimentation, and modeling of energy flow and food webs.
This document discusses various methods for measuring biotic factors and biodiversity in ecosystems. It describes how species richness is simply the number of different species counted, while biodiversity combines both the number of species and their relative abundances. It provides Simpson's Biodiversity Index formula for calculating biodiversity. Population size can be estimated by throwing quadrats and scaling up based on total area. The Lincoln Index uses mark-recapture data to estimate animal population sizes. Other methods like measuring abundance, density, frequency, cover, and biomass are also discussed. The document considers potential issues with methods and ethical considerations.
Wildlife Biology, wild Physiology and introduction DeepakYadav843
This document summarizes key concepts in wildlife physiology and ecology. It discusses the circulatory, respiratory, excretory, and nervous systems of mammals. It also covers wildlife habitat components, limiting factors, food chains and webs, ecological pyramids, carrying capacity, niche, and the effects of temperature, light, soil types, and productivity on animals and their distribution. Habitats provide wildlife with requirements like appropriate temperatures, fresh water, food sources, and places to raise young. Animal behavior is studied in ethology and can be instinctive or learned through experiences.
This document provides guidance for students on the AQA Unit 5 Biology exam focusing on DNA and gene technology. It outlines key topics that will be assessed including gene cloning, transfer, and therapy. Students should understand principles and methodologies involved in gene/DNA cloning techniques. They will need to interpret data on recombinant DNA technology and evaluate ethical issues regarding its use. The document also provides examples of essay questions and describes what examiners are looking for in terms of knowledge, argument structure, and use of relevant examples from different areas of the specification.
This document provides an overview of the AQA(B) AS Unit 2 biology specification and course content. It includes summaries of key topics such as polysaccharides, gas exchange, the circulatory system, water transport in plants, DNA structure and replication, gene expression, chromosomes, the cell cycle, meiosis and sexual reproduction, antibiotic resistance, classification, biodiversity, and causes of diversity. It also notes that the notes may be used freely by students and teachers and provides contact information for the author.
This document provides an overview of Module 1 - Core Principles for an AQA(B) AS biology course. It includes the following key points in 3 sentences:
The document outlines the contents and topics to be covered in Module 1, including biological molecules, cells, physiology and disease. It provides a high-level summary of the main macromolecules that make up living things - carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. The first pages provide more detailed information on the structures and properties of carbohydrates, lipids and the chemical bonds involved in forming these macromolecules.
This document provides an overview of the contents of an A2 Biology unit on control systems. The unit covers topics including the human nervous system, nerve cells, the nerve impulse, synapses, receptors, muscle, animal and plant responses, control of heart rate, the hormone system, homeostasis, and molecular genetics. The genetics section will discuss topics such as the genetic code, protein synthesis, gene mutations, stem cells, control of gene expression, and biotechnology techniques including DNA sequencing and genetically modified organisms.
This document provides an overview of the AQA A2 Biology Unit 4 specification. It covers key topics in ecology including fieldwork techniques, populations and the ecological niche, ecological succession, nutrient cycles, energy flow, intensive farming, the greenhouse effect, human populations, metabolism, genetics, and natural selection. Fieldwork techniques discussed include random and systematic sampling using quadrats and transects to collect quantitative data on abiotic and biotic factors.
This document outlines the content covered in Unit 1 of the GCE Biology specification, which focuses on biology and disease. It discusses how pathogens and lifestyle can cause disease, and covers the key content on the digestive system, including the roles of enzymes, proteins, carbohydrates, and transport across membranes. The digestive system content includes the structure and functions of the digestive organs, as well as the processes of digestion and absorption of proteins, carbohydrates, and other molecules. It provides details on the assessment and skills developed in this unit.
This document provides an overview of various statistical methods for summarizing and analyzing biological data, including:
- Calculating the mean, median, and mode to summarize sample data
- Using distribution curves like histograms to visualize patterns in data and identify if the distribution is normal or skewed
- Calculating standard deviation to quantify the variation of data from the mean
- Using t-tests to compare two normally distributed samples and determine if differences are statistically significant
- Using non-parametric tests like the Mann-Whitney U test for small or skewed sample comparisons
- Applying the chi-squared test to analyze relationships between categorical variables
- Using the Spearman rank correlation coefficient to identify monotonic relationships between two variable sets
The document describes the cardiac cycle, which is the sequence of events in one heartbeat. It defines systole as the period of ventricular contraction and diastole as the period of ventricular relaxation. The cycle begins with atrial systole, where the atria contract and blood passes to the relaxed ventricles. This is followed by ventricular systole, where the ventricles contract and force blood out through the arteries. Finally, during diastole the ventricles relax and refill with blood from the veins, completing the cycle.
The document describes the structure and function of the circulatory system. There are three types of blood vessels - arteries, which carry blood away from the heart; capillaries, which connect arteries and veins and facilitate exchange of materials; and veins, which carry blood back to the heart. Arteries and veins have three layers including the tunica intima, media, and externa. Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels and have a single layer that allows for diffusion. Blood flows through the circulatory system, facilitated by the heart and auxiliary pumps like skeletal muscles. Blood pressure varies in different vessel types and is regulated by both short-term and long-term mechanisms in the body.
This document is from a chapter on lymphatics and immunity from an anatomy and physiology textbook. It contains summaries and figures on the lymphatic system, nonspecific immune defenses like physical barriers and phagocytes, and specific immune defenses mediated by lymphocytes and antibodies. The chapter describes the activation of T cells and B cells by antigens, the roles of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and antibodies in the immune response, and how the immune system responds to bacterial infections.
This document summarizes key aspects of nervous systems and addiction. It describes the basic structure and function of neurons, including how nerve impulses are propagated. It explains the diversity of nervous systems across species and key functions like sensory input, integration, and motor output. The document also covers the pharmacology of addictive drugs like how they activate the brain's reward system, and defines addiction. It discusses factors that influence drug use and how people can quit or prevent relapse.
This document provides an overview of cell membranes and transport across cell membranes. It discusses:
- The basic phospholipid bilayer structure of cell membranes, with phospholipids having hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads that form a bilayer.
- The fluid mosaic model of cell membranes, which describes membranes as a fluid bilayer containing embedded and floating proteins. The average thickness is 7nm.
- Key components of membranes, including phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, glycoproteins and proteins, and their various roles in structure and function.
- Mechanisms by which molecules cross cell membranes, including diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis.
A2 genetic diseases and dna probes colstonsandymartin
This document discusses genetic diseases caused by mutations in genes. It provides details on cystic fibrosis and phenylketonuria which are caused by mutations that result in defective proteins. For cystic fibrosis, a mutation causes a deletion of 3 DNA bases, resulting in a faulty protein that cannot regulate chloride transport, causing thick mucus buildup. For phenylketonuria, a mutation prevents conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine, causing intellectual disabilities if not treated with diet. The document also describes the Southern blot technique used to detect mutations, involving separating DNA fragments by size and using a probe to identify target sequences.
Heart disease is the UK's biggest killer, causing over 245,000 deaths in 2001. Coronary heart disease (CHD) specifically causes 22% of deaths in men and 14% of deaths in women under 75. Risk factors for CHD include smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and physical inactivity. CHD occurs when cholesterol builds up in the coronary arteries, reducing blood flow to the heart and potentially causing angina or a heart attack. Managing risk factors such as diet, exercise, weight, and not smoking can help prevent CHD.
The circulatory system consists of three main parts: blood vessels, heart, and blood. The heart pumps blood through arteries and veins using electrical signals from pacemaker cells. Blood carries oxygen, nutrients, waste, and other materials throughout the body via this one-way circulatory route. Key components of the circulatory system include the heart chambers, valves, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and the blood flow cycle from lungs to body and back to lungs. The heartbeat and pulse are regulated by the heart's natural pacemaker and electrical conduction system.
There are three phases of population growth curves: 1) slow growth due to a limited number of species, 2) rapid exponential growth as reproduction increases, doubling in size each interval, and 3) leveling off as resources become limited. Populations undergo intraspecific competition for resources and interspecific competitive exclusion where one species uses resources more effectively, eliminating others. Predator-prey relationships involve predators reducing prey population, then competing with fewer prey, causing fluctuations that create evolutionary pressures.
Dive into the realm of operating systems (OS) with Pravash Chandra Das, a seasoned Digital Forensic Analyst, as your guide. 🚀 This comprehensive presentation illuminates the core concepts, types, and evolution of OS, essential for understanding modern computing landscapes.
Beginning with the foundational definition, Das clarifies the pivotal role of OS as system software orchestrating hardware resources, software applications, and user interactions. Through succinct descriptions, he delineates the diverse types of OS, from single-user, single-task environments like early MS-DOS iterations, to multi-user, multi-tasking systems exemplified by modern Linux distributions.
Crucial components like the kernel and shell are dissected, highlighting their indispensable functions in resource management and user interface interaction. Das elucidates how the kernel acts as the central nervous system, orchestrating process scheduling, memory allocation, and device management. Meanwhile, the shell serves as the gateway for user commands, bridging the gap between human input and machine execution. 💻
The narrative then shifts to a captivating exploration of prominent desktop OSs, Windows, macOS, and Linux. Windows, with its globally ubiquitous presence and user-friendly interface, emerges as a cornerstone in personal computing history. macOS, lauded for its sleek design and seamless integration with Apple's ecosystem, stands as a beacon of stability and creativity. Linux, an open-source marvel, offers unparalleled flexibility and security, revolutionizing the computing landscape. 🖥️
Moving to the realm of mobile devices, Das unravels the dominance of Android and iOS. Android's open-source ethos fosters a vibrant ecosystem of customization and innovation, while iOS boasts a seamless user experience and robust security infrastructure. Meanwhile, discontinued platforms like Symbian and Palm OS evoke nostalgia for their pioneering roles in the smartphone revolution.
The journey concludes with a reflection on the ever-evolving landscape of OS, underscored by the emergence of real-time operating systems (RTOS) and the persistent quest for innovation and efficiency. As technology continues to shape our world, understanding the foundations and evolution of operating systems remains paramount. Join Pravash Chandra Das on this illuminating journey through the heart of computing. 🌟
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
This presentation provides valuable insights into effective cost-saving techniques on AWS. Learn how to optimize your AWS resources by rightsizing, increasing elasticity, picking the right storage class, and choosing the best pricing model. Additionally, discover essential governance mechanisms to ensure continuous cost efficiency. Whether you are new to AWS or an experienced user, this presentation provides clear and practical tips to help you reduce your cloud costs and get the most out of your budget.
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
Driving Business Innovation: Latest Generative AI Advancements & Success StorySafe Software
Are you ready to revolutionize how you handle data? Join us for a webinar where we’ll bring you up to speed with the latest advancements in Generative AI technology and discover how leveraging FME with tools from giants like Google Gemini, Amazon, and Microsoft OpenAI can supercharge your workflow efficiency.
During the hour, we’ll take you through:
Guest Speaker Segment with Hannah Barrington: Dive into the world of dynamic real estate marketing with Hannah, the Marketing Manager at Workspace Group. Hear firsthand how their team generates engaging descriptions for thousands of office units by integrating diverse data sources—from PDF floorplans to web pages—using FME transformers, like OpenAIVisionConnector and AnthropicVisionConnector. This use case will show you how GenAI can streamline content creation for marketing across the board.
Ollama Use Case: Learn how Scenario Specialist Dmitri Bagh has utilized Ollama within FME to input data, create custom models, and enhance security protocols. This segment will include demos to illustrate the full capabilities of FME in AI-driven processes.
Custom AI Models: Discover how to leverage FME to build personalized AI models using your data. Whether it’s populating a model with local data for added security or integrating public AI tools, find out how FME facilitates a versatile and secure approach to AI.
We’ll wrap up with a live Q&A session where you can engage with our experts on your specific use cases, and learn more about optimizing your data workflows with AI.
This webinar is ideal for professionals seeking to harness the power of AI within their data management systems while ensuring high levels of customization and security. Whether you're a novice or an expert, gain actionable insights and strategies to elevate your data processes. Join us to see how FME and AI can revolutionize how you work with data!
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
Fueling AI with Great Data with Airbyte WebinarZilliz
This talk will focus on how to collect data from a variety of sources, leveraging this data for RAG and other GenAI use cases, and finally charting your course to productionalization.
A Comprehensive Guide to DeFi Development Services in 2024Intelisync
DeFi represents a paradigm shift in the financial industry. Instead of relying on traditional, centralized institutions like banks, DeFi leverages blockchain technology to create a decentralized network of financial services. This means that financial transactions can occur directly between parties, without intermediaries, using smart contracts on platforms like Ethereum.
In 2024, we are witnessing an explosion of new DeFi projects and protocols, each pushing the boundaries of what’s possible in finance.
In summary, DeFi in 2024 is not just a trend; it’s a revolution that democratizes finance, enhances security and transparency, and fosters continuous innovation. As we proceed through this presentation, we'll explore the various components and services of DeFi in detail, shedding light on how they are transforming the financial landscape.
At Intelisync, we specialize in providing comprehensive DeFi development services tailored to meet the unique needs of our clients. From smart contract development to dApp creation and security audits, we ensure that your DeFi project is built with innovation, security, and scalability in mind. Trust Intelisync to guide you through the intricate landscape of decentralized finance and unlock the full potential of blockchain technology.
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Generating privacy-protected synthetic data using Secludy and MilvusZilliz
During this demo, the founders of Secludy will demonstrate how their system utilizes Milvus to store and manipulate embeddings for generating privacy-protected synthetic data. Their approach not only maintains the confidentiality of the original data but also enhances the utility and scalability of LLMs under privacy constraints. Attendees, including machine learning engineers, data scientists, and data managers, will witness first-hand how Secludy's integration with Milvus empowers organizations to harness the power of LLMs securely and efficiently.
HCL Notes and Domino License Cost Reduction in the World of DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-and-domino-license-cost-reduction-in-the-world-of-dlau/
The introduction of DLAU and the CCB & CCX licensing model caused quite a stir in the HCL community. As a Notes and Domino customer, you may have faced challenges with unexpected user counts and license costs. You probably have questions on how this new licensing approach works and how to benefit from it. Most importantly, you likely have budget constraints and want to save money where possible. Don’t worry, we can help with all of this!
We’ll show you how to fix common misconfigurations that cause higher-than-expected user counts, and how to identify accounts which you can deactivate to save money. There are also frequent patterns that can cause unnecessary cost, like using a person document instead of a mail-in for shared mailboxes. We’ll provide examples and solutions for those as well. And naturally we’ll explain the new licensing model.
Join HCL Ambassador Marc Thomas in this webinar with a special guest appearance from Franz Walder. It will give you the tools and know-how to stay on top of what is going on with Domino licensing. You will be able lower your cost through an optimized configuration and keep it low going forward.
These topics will be covered
- Reducing license cost by finding and fixing misconfigurations and superfluous accounts
- How do CCB and CCX licenses really work?
- Understanding the DLAU tool and how to best utilize it
- Tips for common problem areas, like team mailboxes, functional/test users, etc
- Practical examples and best practices to implement right away
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
- Key themes to consider in developing and maintaining your privacy program
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
2. POPULATIONS KEY WORDS:
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Abiotic – non-biological factor that makes up part of an ecosystem
Biotic – biological factor that makes up part of an ecosystem
Biodiversity – the range and variety of living organisms within a particular area
Biomass – total mass of living material in a specific area at a given time. (usually dry mass as
amount of water varies)
Climax Community – the organisms that make up the final stage of ecological succession
Community – the organisms of all species that live in the same area.
Conservation – method of maintaining ecosystems and the living organisms that occupy
them
Consumer – any organism that obtains energy by ‘eating’ another
Ecological Niche – all conditions and resources required for an organism to
survive, reproduce and maintain a viable population
Ecosystem – self-contained functional unit made up of all the interacting biotic and abiotic
factors in a specific area
Habitat – the place where an organism lives
Limiting Factor – a variable that limits the rate of a chemical reaction
Population – a group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same habitat at the
same time
Producer – an organism that synthesises organic molecules from simple inorganic ones.
(photosynthetic, 1st trophic level etc.)
Species – a group of similar organisms that can breed together to produce fertile offspring
3. • Fill in words to check understanding of key words:
The study of the inter-relationships between
organisms and their environment is called ____.
The layer of land, air and water that surrounds the
Earth is called the ____. An ecosystem is a more or
less self-contained functional unit made up of all
the living or ____ features and non-living or _____
features in a specific area. Within each ecosystem
are groups of different organisms called a
_____, which live and interact in a particular place
at the same time. A group of interbreeding
organisms occupying the same place at the same
time is called a _____, and the place where they
live is know as a _____.
4. ANSWER:
• The study of the inter-relationships between
organisms and their environment is called
ecology. The layer of land, air and water that
surrounds the Earth is called the biosphere. An
ecosystem is a more or less self-contained
functional unit made up of all the living or biotic
features and non-living or abiotic features in a
specific area. Within each ecosystem are groups
of different organisms called a community, which
live and interact in a particular place at the same
time. A group of interbreeding organisms
occupying the same place at the same time is
called a population, and the place where they
live is know as a habitat.
6. Quadrats
• 3 factors to consider when using quadrats:
- size to use. When studying larger species, you will require larger
quadrats and vice versa. Although when the species in bunched in groups
in random places in the area, (ie. the species are not evenly distributed
throughout the area), a large number of small quadrats will give more
representative results than a small number of large quadrats.
- number of sample quadrats to record within area. The more sample
quadrats, the more reliable the results will be. However it can be time
consuming if too many samples are taken, so there must be a balance
between result reliability and time available. The greater the number of
the different species present in the area being studied, the more quadrats
required to produce valid results.
- position of each quadrat within the area. Random sampling is used, in
order to produce statistically significant results.
• Point quadrats
• Frame quadrats
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
7. Point Quadrats
• A horizontal bar supported by 2 legs.
• At set intervals along the bar are ten
holes, through each of which a long pin may
be dropped.
• Each species that the pin touches is recorded.
• Frame quadrats
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
8. Frame Quadrats
• A square frame divided by string or wire into
equal size subdivisions.
• The quadrat is randomly placed in different
locations within the area being studied.
• The abundance of each species is recorded.
• Point quadrats
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
9. Random Sampling
• It is important to sample randomly in order to
avoid bias.
• METHOD:
1. Lay out 2 tap measures at right angles along
two sides of the study area.
2. Obtain a series of coordinates by using random
numbers taken from a table/random number
generator.
3. Place a quadrat at the intersection of these
coordinates and record the species within it.
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
10. Transects and Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is when samples are taken at fixed
intervals, usually along a line.
• A line transect uses a tape measure stretched across
the ground in a straight line. Any species that touches
the line are recorded.
• A belt transect uses 2 lines, and all the species present
between the 2 lines are recorded.
• An interrupted belt transect uses quadrats that are
placed at intervals, and species within them are
recorded.
• Transects are used across areas where there are clear
environmental gradients.
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
11. Measuring Abundance
• How abundance is measured depends upon the size of
the species being counted and the habitat.
• Frequency – the likelihood of a particular species
occuring in a quadrat. Useful when a species is hard to
count, e.g. Grass. For example, if grass occurs in 15/30
quadrats, the frequency of it’s occurence is 50%.
• Percentage cover – an estimate of the area within a
quadrat that a particular plant species covers. Again
useful if a species is hard to count. This method
enables data to be collected rapidly.
• To ensure reliable results, a large sample size is
necessary. The larger the sample size the more
representative of the community the results will be.
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
12. Mark-Release-Recapture
• A known number of animals are
caught, marked in some way, and then
released back into the community. Later, a
number of individuals are collected randomly
and the number of marked individuals is
Total number of individuals in the first sample x
recorded.
Estimated population size =
(
Back to Investigating Populations
Total number of individuals in the second sample
Number of marked individuals recaptured
Next to Population Size
)
13. Analysing Data
1. Present data in a table/graph. This makes it easier to
compare data (e.g. 2 different locations.)
2. Statistical analysis of data.
3. Check whether results are due to chance.
4. Data analysed for possible correlations and causes.
5. Statistical tests can be used to calculate the strength
of the correlation.
However, the two factors may correlate very well, but it is
possible that both of them are affected by the same
environmental factor.
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
14. Ethics and Fieldwork
• Where possible, the organisms should be studied in situ.
(Where they are found) If it is necessary to remove
them, the numbers taken should be kept to the absolute
minimum.
• Any organisms removed from a site should be returned to
their original habitat as soon as possible. This applies even
if they are dead.
• A sufficient period of time should elapse before a site is
used for future studies.
• Disturbance and damage to the habitat should be avoided.
Trampling, overturning stones, permanently removing
organisms etc. Can all adversely affect a habitat.
• There must be an appropriate balance between the
damage done and the value of the information gained.
Back to Investigating Populations
Next to Population Size
15. Population Size
No population continues to grow indefinitely
because certain factors limit growth, for
example; availability of
food, light, water, oxygen and shelter, the
accumulation of toxic waste, disease and
predators.
16. Population Growth Curves
• The usual pattern of growth for a natural population has 3 phases.
1. Slow growth. Initially small numbers of individuals reproduce.
2. Rapid growth. The ever-increasing number of individuals continue to
reproduce. The population size doubles during each interval of
time.
3. Stable state, no growth. Growth is limited by factors such as
increased predation or food supply. The graph therefore levels
out, some cyclic fluctuations due to variations in factors.
p
17. Abiotic Factors
• The non-living part of the environment conditions that influence
the size of a population:
- Temperature; Each species has a different optimum temperature at
which it is best able to survive.
Cold-blooded animals + plants: temperatures below
optimum, enzymes work more slowly and so their metabolic rate is
reduced. Populations therefore grow at a slower rate. Temperatures
above optimum, enzymes undergo denaturation and therefore they
work less efficiently. Again the population grows more slowly.
Warm-blooded animals: can maintain a relatively constant body
temperature. However, the further the temperature of the external
environment gets from their optimum temperature, the more
energy these organisms expend in trying to maintain their normal
body temperature.
This leaves less energy for growth and so they mature more
slowly, and their reproductive rate slows. The population size
therefore decreases.
18. Abiotic Factors cont.
- Light; is a source of energy for ecosystems. The rate of
photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases. The
greater the rate of photosynthesis, the faster plants grow
and the more seeds they produce. There population size is
therefore potentially greater and in turn the populations
size of the animals that feed on the plants is too greater.
- pH; Enzymes operate most effectively at their optimum pH.
Population size is larger where the appropriate pH exists
and decreases/becomes non-existent where the pH is too
far from optimum.
- Water and humidity; Where water is scarce, populations
are small and consist of species well adapted to living in dry
conditions. Humidity affects the transpiration rates in
plants and the evaporation of water from the bodies of
animals. The population of species adapted to low humidity
will be larger than those without these adaptations.
19. Practice questions
1.
An ecologist was estimating the population of sandhoppers on a beach. 100
sandhoppers were collected, marked and released again. A week later 80
sandhoppers were collected, of which five were marked. Calculate the estimated
size of the sandhopper population on the beach.
2.
When using mark-release-recapture technique, explain how each of the following
might affect the final estimate of a population:
a.) The marks put on the individuals captured in the first sample make them more
noticable to predation and so proportionally more are eaten than unmarked
individuals.
b.) Between the release of marked individuals and the collection of a second sample
an increased ‘birth’ rate leads to a very large increase in the population.
c.) Between the release of marked individuals and the collection of a second
sample, disease kills large numbers of all types of individual.
20. Answers
1.
100 x 80 =1600
5
1.
a.) Population over-estimated as there will be proportionally fewer marked
individuals in the second sample.
b.) Population over-estimated as there will be proportionally fewer marked
individuals in the second sample because all the ‘new’ individuals will be
unmarked.
c.) No difference because the proportion of marked and unmarked individuals
killed should be the same.
21. Application Questions
1.
Suggest a reason why even dead organisms should be returned to the habitat
from which they came.
2.
Suggest why it is beneficial to a habitat that further investigations are not
carried too soon after an initial study.
3.
In the study of a seashore, students turn over large stones to record the
numbers of different organisms on their underside. Suggest reasons why it is
important that these stones are replaced the same way up as they were
originally.
4.
In the case of experienced ecologists obtaining data that enables habitats to be
conserved, the benefits usually outweigh any damage that they cause to the
habitats. This makes their work ethically justifiable. It might be said that the
same is not true of school or college students performing field studies. Give
reasons for and against A-level students carrying out ecological investigations in
this field.
22. Answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
-
They can be eaten by other organisms and so provide energy and nutrients to the
ecosystem.
It allows the habitat to recover from any disturbance/removal of organisms. The
results of a further study carried out too soon after may result in data that are not
typical of the habitat under ‘normal’ conditions.
The organisms live beneath stones so they remain moist when not covered by the
tide. If the stone is left upside down the organism may become desiccated and die.
FOR:
Practical experience aids learning/better than theoretical study
Experienced ecologists have to start somewhere
Students may become ecologists and so aid conservation in the long term
AGAINST:
Students are inexperienced and therefore more likely to damage habitats
Informations could be provided by theory/videos
Large number of A-level students puts pressure on/increase damage on popular
sites
23. Competition
• Intraspecific – individuals of same species compete for the
same resources. (food, water, breeding sites etc.) Lower the
availability, the smaller the population and vice versa.
e.g. Limpets competing for algae
Oak trees competing for resources (some grow larger and
restrict light availability)
Robins competing for breeding territory. (females only
attracted to those who have established breeding
territories)
• Interspecific – individuals of different species compete for
resources such as food, light, water etc. Where 2 species
occupy the same niche, the competitive exclusion principle
applies. This principle states that where 2 species are
competing for limited resources, the one that uses these
resources most effectively will ultimately eliminate the
other.
24. Predation
• A predator is an organism that feeds on
another organism, known as their prey.
• In laboratory, the prey is usually exterminated
by the predator. This is because the situation in
their natural environment is different. In their
own habitat, the area over which the
population can travel is greater and there are
more potential refuges. In these
circumstances, some of the prey can escape
predation.
25. Predator-Prey Relationship +
Population Size
• Predators eat prey, prey population decreases.
• Fewer prey available for predator food and
limits chances of survival for some
predators, predator population decreases.
• Fewer predators, so fewer prey eaten. Prey
population increases.
• More prey available as food, so predator
population increases.
26. Human Populations
• Recent explosion in human population size:
- the development of agriculture.
- the development of manufacturing and trade
that created the industrial revolution.
• We are currently in the exponential phase, in
which our population grows rapidly rather
than gives way to the stationary phase in
which the population stabilises.
27. Factors affecting growth
• Immigration (Individuals join from outside.)
• Emigration (Individuals leave a population.)
Population growth = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration)
% Population growth rate = population change during period
-------------------------------------------- x100
population at the start of the period
28. Factors affecting birth rate
• Economic conditions – countries with a low per capita income tend
to have higher birth rates.
• Cultural and religious backgrounds – Some countries encourage
larger families and some religions oppose birth control.
• Social pressures and conditions – In some countries a large family
improves social standing.
• Birth control – The extent to which contraception and abortion are
used markedly influences the birth rate.
• Political factors – Governments influence birth rates through
education and taxation policies.
number of births per year
Birth rate = total population in the same year
x 1000
29. Factors affecting death rate
• Age profile. The greater the proportion of elderly people in a
population, the higher the death rate is likely to be.
• Life expectancy at birth. The residents of economically developed
countries live longer than those of economically less develooped
countries.
• Food supply. (Nutrition.)
• Safe drinking water. Reduces the risk of water-borne diseases such
as cholera.
• Medical care.
• Natural disasters. How prone a region is to drought, famine or
disease.
• War. Deaths during war produces an immediate drop in population
and a longer term fall as a result of fewer fertile adults.
number of deaths per year
Death rate = total population in the same year
x 1000
30. Population Structure
• Demographic transition – A change in population
from those where life expectancy is short and
birth rates are high, to those where life
expectancy is long and birth rates are low.
• Stable population – Birth and death rate are
same, so there is no change in population size.
• Increasing population – High birth rate. Typical of
economically less-developed countries.
• Decreasing population – Low birth rate + low
mortality rate. E.g. Japan.
33. Anaerobic Respiration
-PRODUCES 2 ATP AS AN EMERGENCY
SHORT BURST OF POWER
-ETC ALONE PRODUCES 38 ATP, SO THIS
IS MUCH LONGER LASTING THAN
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Glycolysis
NAD
Pyruvate
CO2
Lactic acid
Ethanal
NAD
NADH
PLANTS
ANIMALS
NADH 2H
2H
Ethanol
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
34. •
•
•
•
ATP Synthesis
ADP + Pi ATP
Photophosphorylation (During photosynthesis)
Oxidative phosphorylation (During respiration)
Substrate-level phosphorylation (When phosphate groups are transferred
from donor molecules to ADP to make ATP.)
Role of ATP:
The instability of its phosphate bonds makes ATP a good energy donor, but also
stops it from being a good long term energy store. ATP is better as an
immediate energy source (than glucose) because ATP can be broken down
to ADP + Pi in a single reaction releasing energy. The breakdown of glucose
is a long series of reactions and therefore the energy release takes longer.
ATP Is the Source of Energy for:
- Metabolic processes
- Movement
- Active transport
- Activation of molecules
- Secretion
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
35. Aerobic Respiration
• C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 energy + 6H20 + 6CO2
• requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, water and
lots of ATP. Aerobic Respiration can be summarised into
four stages 1. Glycolysis - splitting of a 6 carbon molecule into two 3
carbon pyruvates
2. Link Reaction - conversion of pyruvate into C02 and 2
carbon molecule Acetyl coA.
3. Krebs Cycle - intro of Acetyl coA into a cycle of oxidationreduction reactions that creates some ATP and a large
number of electrons.
4. Electron Transport Chain - electrons from the Krebs cycle
are used to synthesise ATP with water produced as a by
product.
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
36. Glycolysis
• Occurs in cytoplasm
• 2 ATP go in as activation energy
• 4 ATP produced, net gain of 2 ATP
1. Glucose (6C) is phosphorylated.
2. Breaks down into 2 x triose phosphate (3C).
3. Phosphate donated to ATP.
4. NAD reduced.
5. 3+4 happen twice per glucose molecule, as 2
triose phosphate molecules are produced
6. This creates 2 x pyruvate (3C).
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
37. Link Reaction
• Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
1. Co-enzyme A combines with pyruvate (3C).
2. CO2 is removed.
3. 2H removed, donated to NAD, produces
NADH.
4. Resultant molecule is Acetyl CoA (2C)
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
38. Krebs Cycle
• Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
1. 4C compound combines with Acetyl CoA to
produce 6C compound.
2. CoA is removed and recycled.
3. NAD + FAD are reduced.
4. ATP created.
5. 2 CO2 removed, regenerating 4C compound
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
39. Electron Transport Chain
• Occurs in mitochondria cristae
1. NAD and FAD are reduced.
2. They then donate electrons to the first molecule in the electron
transport chain.
3. This releases protons which are then actively transported across the
inner mitochondrial membrane.
4. Meanwhile, the electrons pass along the chain of electron transport
carrier molecules in a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. The
electrons lose energy as they travel down the chain and some of
this energy is used to combine ADP and Pi to form ATP. The rest is
released as heat.
5. Protons accumulate in intermembrane space before they diffuse
back into the mitochondrial matrix through special channel
proteins.
6. At the end of the chain, the electrons combine with the protons and
oxygen to make water. O2 is the final acceptor of electrons in ETC.
ATP + Respiration
Photosynthesis
40. Photosynthesis
• CHLOROPLAST STRUCTURE:
Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast of the plant cell. They
consist of a double membrane, thylakoids which are stacked up
into grana, lamellae which link grana molecules, photosynthetic
pigments, stroma and starch grains.
• Photosynthetic pigments (e.g chlorophyll and carotene) are
coloured substances that absorb light energy for
photosynthesis, they are found in the thylakoid membrane and are
attached to proteins. The protein and pigment are called a
photosystem.
• Plants use two types of photosystems to capture light energy, 1
which absorbs light at 700nm and number 2 which absorbs light at
680nm.
• Stroma is the gel liquid which fills the rest of the chloroplast and
surrounds the thykaloids. It contains some sugars, enzymes and
organic acids.
• Carbs produced by photosynthesis and not used up straight away
are stored as starch grains (round blobs) in the stroma.
41. The equation for Photosynthesis is • 6 CO2 + 6 H2O ------------> C6H12O6 + 6 02
42. Light Dependent Reaction
• Photosynthesis takes place in two stages - light dependant and
light independent.
• The light dependant stage takes place in the thykaloid membranes
of the chloroplast.
• The light energy is used to create ATP (adding another phosphate
to ADP), and to reduce NADP to form Reduced NADP.
• The products of the light dependant stage (ATP, Reduced NADP) are
used in the light independent stage. The ATP is used as energy and
the reduced NADP transfers a hydrogen.
• During the light dependant stage, photolysis of water occurs (use
of light to break water). Water is split into proton (H+), electron (e-)
and oxygen, which is released into the atmosphere. The e- is used
to replace the excited electron emitted from chlorophyll, the H+
goes back to the e- (after it has passed through electron carriers) to
reduce NADP.
43.
44. Light Independent Reaction
• The light independent reaction takes place in the
stroma of the chloroplast. This reaction is also
known as The Calvin Cycle. Carbon fixation takes
place in the Calvin Cycle, this is where carbon is
'fixed' into an organic molecule.
• The products of the light independent stage are
triose phosphate which can be used to make
glucose and other useful organic substances.
45.
46. Limiting Factors
There are optimum conditions for
photosynthesis:
• High light intensity of a certain wavelength
• temperature around 25 degrees
• C02 at 0.4%.
All of these factors can limit photosynthesis, if
one or any of the factors are too high or too
low it will slow down photosynthesis
47. ENERGY AND ECOSYSTEMS KEYWORDS
• Producer – Photosynthetic organisms that manufacture
organic substances.
• Consumer – Organisms that obtain their energy by feeding
on other organisms rather than using the energy of
sunlight directly.
• Decomposer - An organism who recycles nutrients by
performing decomposition as it feeds on dead or decaying
organisms.
• Detritivore - An organism that feeds on detritus or organic
waste.
• Trophic level – The position of an organism in a food
chain.
• Net production = gross production – respiratory losses.
48. Energy transfer between trophic levels
• Plants normally convert 1-3% of the Sun’s
available energy into organic matter. This is
because:
- 90%+ is reflected back into space by clouds and
dust or absorbed into the atmosphere.
- Not all wavelengths can be absorbed and used for
photosynthesis.
- Light may not fall on a chlorophyll molecule.
- A factor e.g. Low CO2 levels, may limit the rate of
photosynthesis.
49. Energy transfer between trophic levels
• The total quantity of energy that the plants in
a community convert to organic matter is
called the gross production.
• However plants use 20-50% of this in
respiration.
• The rate at which they store the remaining
energy is called net production.
• Net production = gross production –
respiratory losses.
50. Energy transfer between trophic levels
• 10% of energy stored in plants is used by primary
consumers for growth.
• Secondary and tertiary consumers are slightly more
efficient (transferring 20%). Low % energy transfer is due
to:
- Some of organism is not eaten.
- Some parts are eaten but not digested and therefore lost in
faeces.
- Some of energy is lost in urine.
- Some energy losses are due to heat from the body to the
environment and heat loss during respiration. These losses
are high in mammals and birds because they require more
energy to maintain their high body temperature.
51. Energy transfer between trophic levels
• Because energy transfer between trophic
levels is inefficient. It explains why:
- Most food chains have only 4/5 trophic levels.
Insufficient energy to support a large enough
breeding population at trophic levels higher
than these.
- The biomass is less at higher trophic levels.
- Total amount of energy stored is less at each
level as you go up the food chain.
52. Calculating the efficiency of energy
transfer
• Energy transfer = energy available after the transfer
----------------------------------------------energy available before the transfer
X 100
54. Ecological
Pyramids
Pyramids of Number
Agricultural
Ecosystems
• An ecological pyramid of numbers shows graphically the population
of each trophic level in a food chain.
• No account is taken of size – this sometimes results in an inverted
shape, or a shape that does not resemble a pyramid at all.
• The number of individuals is so great that it is not possible to
represent them accurately on the same scale as other species in the
food chain. E.g. 1 tree may accommodate for millions of greenfly.
57. Ecological
Pyramids
Agricultural
Ecosystems
Comparison
Number
Biomass
Energy
Doesn’t take into account size of
organisms.
Does take into account size of
organisms.
Collecting the data can be
difficult and complex.
Number of individuals are so
great that it is impossible to
represent them accurately.
Fresh mass easy to access and
measure, however varying
amounts of water make it
unreliable.
More reliable data than
biomass, because 2 organisms
of the same dry mass may store
different amounts of energy.
Dry mass is harder to
access, organisms must be killed
and so it is usually only made on
a small sample – which may be
unrepresentative of the
population.
Seasonal differences not taken
into account, as only organisms
at a particular are shown.
Seasonal differences not taken
into account, as only organisms
at a particular are shown.
Data collected for a year and so
can take into account seasonal
differences.
58. Agricultural Ecosystems
• Net productivity = gross productivity – respiratory losses
Natural Ecosystem
Agricultural Ecosystem
Solar energy only – no additional energy
input
Solar energy + energy from food (labour)
and fossil fuels (machinery and transport)
Lower productivity
Higher productivity
More species diversity
Less species diversity
More genetic diversity
Less genetic diversity
Nutrients recycled naturally within the
ecosystem with little addition from outside
Natural recycling is more limited and
supplemented by the addition of artificial
fertilisers
Populations are controlled by natural means, Population are controlled naturally and by
e.g. Competition and climate
use of pesticides and cultivation
A natural climax community
An artificial community prevented from
reaching its natural climax community.
59. Pest and Pesticides
• A pest is an organism that competes with humans
for food/space/could be a danger to health.
An effective pesticide must be:
- Specific (toxic to the pest only.)
- Biodegradable (once applied, it will break down
into harmless substances in the soil.)
- Cost-effective (development costs are high and
new pesticides remain useful only for a limited
time as pests can develop genetic resistance.)
- Not accumulate (so that it does not build up in an
organism or as it passes along food chains.)
60. Biological control
• Controlling pests using organisms that are
either predators or parasites of the pest
organism.
• The aim is to control, not eradicate. If the
pests were eradicated, the predators would
die out from lack of food and therefore the
pests could reinstate themselves. The pest and
control agent should exist in a balance at a
level where the pest causes little damage.
61. Pesticides vs. Biological control
Biological Control
Pesticides
Very specific
Not as specific – often have an effect on
non-target species.
Once introduced the control organism
reproduces itself.
Must be reapplied at regular intervals,
this means they are expensive.
Pests do not become resistant.
Pests develop genetic resistance and new
pesticides have to be developed.
Does not leave chemical in environment /
on crop / no bioaccumulation.
Can bioaccumulate.
May become a pest itself.
Does not become a pest itself.
Does not get rid of pest completely.
Aim is to eradicate pest completely.
Takes time to reduce pest population.
Fast effect.
62. Integrated pest-control systems
• Integrates all forms of pest control rather than being reliant on one type.
• Aim is to reduce pest population to an acceptable level. Eradication is
costly, counterproductive and almost impossible to achieve.
• Integrated control involves:
- Choose animal/plant varieties suitable for the area and as pest-resistant as
possible
- Managing the environment to provide suitable habitats close to the crops
for natural predators
- Regularly monitor crop for signs of pests and take early action if need be
- Removing the pests mechanically (hand-picking/erecting barriers...) if pest
exceeds acceptable population level
- Use biological agents if necessary and available
- Pesticides are to be used as a last resort, when pest population is starting
to get out of control
63. Pest control and productivity
• Pests reduce productivity, any resources taken by the
pest means less is available for crop.
• One may become a limiting factor in
photosynthesis, reducing the rate and subsequently
productivity.
• Pests also eat leaves of crops, limiting photosynthesis
and leaving less crop for harvest.
• Many crops are grown in MONOCULTURE. This means
insect and fungal pests as well as diseases can spread
rapidly. Animals may not grow as rapidly, die, be unfit
for human consumption – due to pests and therefore
would lead to reduced productivity.
64. Intensive Rearing of Domestic
Livestock
• Aim: to convert the smallest amount of food energy into
the greatest quantity of animal mass.
• How to increase energy-conversion rate:
- Restrict movement, less energy used by muscle contraction
- Environment kept warm in order to reduce heat loss as
most livestock are warm-blooded
- Feeding can be controlled so that the animals receive
optimum amount and type of food for maximum growth
- Predators are excluded
- Selective breeding to produce varieties that are more
efficient at converting the food they eat into body mass
- Use hormones to increase growth rates
65. Features of Intensive Rearing of
Domestic Livestock
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Efficient energy conversion
Low cost products
Less space used
Safety, smaller concentrated units are easier to regulate
Disease, living in close proximity results in easily spread
infection
Use of drugs (over use of antibiotics has led to antibiotic
resistance)
Animal welfare, better healthcare but confined space can
cause distress
Pollution, large concentration of waste in small area
Use of fossil fuels to heat buildings
Reduced genetic diversity due to selective breeding, resulting
in the loss of genes that may have been beneficial
67. Basic Nutrient Cycle Sequence
Inorganic
molecule
or ion
Absorption
Organic
molecules in
Producers
Feeding and
digestion
Organic
molecules in
Consumers
Death
Decomposition
Nutrient Cycles
Organic
molecules in
Decomposers
Succession
68. Carbon Cycle
CO2 in
atmosphere
Photosynthesis
C containing
compounds in
Producers
Combustion
Fossil
Fuels
Respiration
Feeding
Organic
molecules in
Consumers
Death
Decomposition
Nutrient Cycles
Organic
molecules in
Decomposers
Decay Prevented
Succession
69. Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen fixation by free-living bacteria
Denitrification
Ammonium
Ions
Nitrification
Nitrate
Ions
Nitrification
Nitrate
Ions
Nitrate in
atmosphere
Absorption
Feeding and
digestion
Ammonium
containing
molecules in
Producers
Death
Ammonification
Nutrient Cycles
Organic
molecules in
Decomposers
Succession
Ammonium
containing
molecules in
Consumers
Death
and
excretion
70. Ammonification
• The product of ammonia from organic
ammonium containing compounds
• These compounds include
urea, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins
• Saprobiotic microorganisms feed on these
materials, releasing ammonia, forming
ammonium ions in the soil.
Nutrient Cycles
Nitrogen Cycle
Succession
71. Nitrification
• The conversion of ammonium ions to nitrate ions. The
conversion occurs in 2 stages:
1. Oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrite ions (NO2-)
2. Oxidation of nitrite ions to nitrate ions (NO3-)
• This is an oxidation reaction, and so releases energy
• It is carried out by free-living soil microorganisms
called nitrifying bacteria
• The bacteria require oxygen to carry out this
conversion and so they need soil with many air spaces
• To raise productivity, it is important for farmers to keep
soil structure light and well aerated by ploughing.
• Good drainage prevents air spaces from being filled
with water
Nutrient Cycles
Nitrogen Cycle
Succession
72. Nitrogen Fixation
• Nitrogen gas is converted into nitrogen-containing
compounds.
• It is carried out by 2 different microorganisms:
1. Free-living Nitrogen-fixing bacteria – these reduce
gaseous nitrogen to ammonia, which they then use to
manufacture amino acids. When they die and
decay, they release nitrogen-rich compounds.
2. Mutualistic Nitrogen-fixing bacteria – these live in
nodules on the roots of plants such as peas and
beans. They obtain carbohydrates from the plant, and
the plant acquires amino acids from the bacteria.
Nutrient Cycles
Nitrogen Cycle
Succession
73. Denitrification
• When soils become waterlogged, the conditions
become anaerobic.
• Therefore fewer aerobic nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing
bacteria are found, and more anaerobic denitrifying
bacteria.
• These convert soil nitrates into gaseous nitrogen.
• As this process reduces the availability of nitrogencontaining compounds for plants.
• This reduces productivity. To increase productivity, the
soils on which crops grow must therefore be kept well
aerated to prevent the build-up of denitrifying bacteria
Nutrient Cycles
Nitrogen Cycle
Succession
74. Fill in the blanks to complete the passage below in order to
check your understanding of the nitrogen cycle.
A few organisms can convert nitrogen gas into
compounds useful to other organisms is a process
known as (1). These organisms can be free-living or live
in a relationship with certain (2). Most plants obtain
their nitrogen by absorbing (3) from soil through their
(4) by active transport. They then convert this to
(5), which is passed to animals when they eat plants.
On death, (6) break down these organisms, releasing
(7), which can then be oxidised to form nitrates by (8)
bacteria. Further oxidation by the same type of
bacteria forms (9) ions. These ions may be converted
back to the atmospheric nitrogen by the activities of
(10) bacteria.
Answers
75. Answers:
A few organisms can convert nitrogen gas into compounds
useful to other organisms is a process known as (1 –
Nitrogen fixation). These organisms can be free-living or
live in a relationship with certain (2 - Plants). Most plants
obtain their nitrogen by absorbing (3 – Nitrate ions) from
soil through their (4 – Root hairs) by active transport. They
then convert this to (5 – Proteins/Amino acids/Nucleic
acids), which is passed to animals when they eat plants. On
death, (6 - Decomposers) break down these
organisms, releasing (7 – Ammonium ions), which can then
be oxidised to form nitrates by (8 - Nitrifying) bacteria.
Further oxidation by the same type of bacteria forms (9 Nitrate) ions. These ions may be converted back to the
atmospheric nitrogen by the activities of (10 - Denitrifying)
bacteria.
Nutrient Cycles
Succession
76. Fertilisers
• In natural ecosystems, the minerals that are removed from
the soil by plants are returned when the plant is broken
down by microorganisms on its death.
• In agricultural ecosystems, the crop is harvested and the
dead remains are rarely returned to the same area of land.
Therefore the levels of mineral ions in agricultural land
falls, and in order to be replenished, fertiliser must be
added to the soil.
2 types of fertiliser:
1. Natural (organic) fertilisers – dead and decaying remains
of plants and animals, as well as animal waste.
2. Artificial (inorganic) fertilisers – mined from rock and
deposits and converted into compounds containing
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium.
Nutrient Cycles
Succession
77. Consequences of nitrogen fertilisers
• Reduced species diversity (nitrogen-rich soils
favour the species grown, which outcompetes
other species.
• Leaching – Rain dissolves soluble nutrients such
as nitrates, carrying them deep into soil beyond
the reach of plant roots. The leached nitrates can
then find their way into watercourses, such as
streams and rivers. They may then pollute the
source of human drinking water.
• Eutrophication – the process by which nutrients
build up into bodies of water.
Nutrient Cycles
Succession
78. Nutrient Cycles
Succession
Eutrophication
1.
In most lakes and rivers there is naturally very little nitrate (a limiting factor for plant and
algal growth).
2. As nitrate concentration increases as a result of leaching, it is no longer a limiting factor for
the growth of plants and algae.
3. As algae mostly grow at the surface, the upper layers of water become densely populated.
This is an ‘algal bloom’.
4. This dense surface layer of algae absorbs light and prevents it from reaching lower depths.
5. Light becomes a limiting factor for the growth of plants and algae at lower depths so they
eventually die.
6. There are more dead plants and algae for the growth of saprobiotic algae which grow
exponentially.
7. The saprobiotic bacteria require oxygen of respiration, creating a demand for it.
8. The concentration of oxygen in the water is reduced and nitrates are released from
decaying organisms.
9. Oxygen then becomes the limiting factor for the population of aerobic organisms. These
organisms ultimately die as the oxygen is used up.
10. Without the aerobic organisms, there is less competition for the anaerobic organisms
whose population rises exponentially.
11. The anaerobic organisms further decompose dead material, releasing more nitrates and
some toxic waste, which make the water putrid.
Animal slurry, organic manures, human sewage and natural leaching can all contribute to
eutrophication, but the main cause is leaching of artificial fertilisers.
79. Succession Key Words
KEY WORDS:
• Biodiversity – the range and variety of living organisms within a
particular area
• Biomass – total mass of living material in a specific area at a given
time. (usually dry mass as amount of water varies)
• Climax Community – the organisms that make up the final stage of
ecological succession
• Community – the organisms of all species that live in the same
area.
• Conservation –
• Ecosystem – self-contained functional unit made up of all the
interacting biotic and abiotic factors in a specific area
• Pioneer species –
• Succession –
80. Succession
• Succession is
e.g. When bare rock/barren land is colonised
This may occur as a result of:
- a glacier retreating and depositing rock
- sand being piled into dunes by wind or sea
- volcanoes erupting and depositing lava
- lakes or ponds being creating by land subsiding
- silt and mud being deposited at river estuaries
81. Primary Succession
1. The hostile environment that inhospitable to other
species, is colonised a pioneer species.
2. The pioneer species dies, decomposes and adds
nutrients to the environment. This change in the
abiotic environment caused by the pioneer species...
3. Enables other species to colonise/survive the area.
4. This results in a change in diversity/biodiversity.
5. Therefore stability increases, the environment
becomes less hostile.
6. A climax community is established.
82. Example of ecological succession:
- Area of bare rock
- Pioneer species are Lichens as they can survive
considerable drying out
- Over time, weathering of the rock produces sand/soil
- The lichens die and decompose releasing nutrients
- These two stages change the abiotic environment and
enable it to support a community of small plants
- Next typical stages in succession are mosses and ferns.
- More soil is built up from continuing rock erosion and
more organic matter available from death of the plants
- This again changes the abiotic environment, more suitable
for organisms that follow e.g. Shrubs, trees
- Climax community establishes
84. Common features during a succession
- Non-living environment becomes less hostile (Soil
forms, more nutrients, shelter provided)
- A greater number/variety of habitats (Due to less
hostile environment)
- Increased biodiversity (Evident in early stages, peaks at
mid-succession, decreasing when climax community is
reached due to dominant species out-competing other
species.)
- More complex food webs (Due to increased
biodiversity)
- Increased biomass (Due to the more complex food
web)
85. Secondary Succession
• Another type of succession is when land that already
supports life is suddenly altered.
• This could be due to a forest fire or agriculture.
• In this case, the stages are the same but they occur and
reach the climax community much more rapidly
^ This is because...
Spores and seeds often remain alive in the soil and there is
an influx of animals and plants through dispersal and
migration in the surrounding area
*This succession does not have a pioneer species as the
organisms are from subsequent successional stages.
BUT as the land has been altered, the climax community will
be different.
86. Conservation of Habitats
• Conservation is the management of the Earth’s natural
resources so that use of them in the future is
maximised.
Reasons for conservation:
• Ethical (Respect for living things. Other species have
occupied the Earth far longer than us, therefore should
be allowed to coexist with us.)
• Economic (Many species have the capacity to make
substances, many of which may prove valuable in the
future.)
• Cultural and Aesthetic (Variety adds interest to
everyday lives and inspires writers etc.)
87. Inheritance and Selection
KEYWORDS
•
Phenotype - The observable characteristics of an organism. (Appearance.)
•
Genotype - The genetic composition of an organism.
•
Gene - A section of DNA, a sequence of nucleotide bases that usually determines a single characteristic of an organism.
•
Allele - Different forms of a gene.
•
Homologous chromosomes - A pair of chromosomes that have the same gene loci and therefore determine the same
features.
•
Homozygous - Two of the same alleles present.
•
Heterozygous - One of each allele present.
•
Dominant - The allele that is expressed even when present with the recessive allele.
•
Recessive - The allele that is not expressed. Expressed only in the presence of another identical allele.
•
Homozygous dominant - Two dominant alleles.
•
Homozygous recessive - Two recessive alleles.
•
Diploid - 2 copies of each allele in cells.
•
Co-dominant - Two alleles that both contribute to the phenotype.
•
Multiple alleles - A gene that has more than 2 allelic forms e.g. blood type.
•
Gene pool - All the alleles of all the genes of all the individuals in a population at any one time.
•
Allelic frequency - The number of times an allele occurs within the gene pool is referred to as the allelic frequency,
•
Hardy-Weinberg Principle - p + q = 1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
•
Directional selection - Selection may favour individuals that vary in one direction from the mean of the population. It
changes the characteristics of the population.
•
Stabilising selection - Selection may favour average individuals. It preserves the characteristics of a population.
•
Speciation - The evolution of a new species from existing species.
•
Geographical isolation - Occurs when a physical barrier prevents two populations from breeding with one another.
88. Monohydrid Inheritance – Genetic
cross diagram example
Parental Phenotype:
Green pods
Parental Genotype:
GG
Gametes:
G+G
Yellow pods
gg
g+g
Male gametes
Female gametes
G
G
g
Gg
Gg
g
Gg
Gg
100% green
89. Sex Inheritance/Linkage
• Any gene that is carried on either the X or Y
chromosomes is said to be sex linked.
• However, the X chromosome is longer than the Y
chromosome, meaning for most of the X chromosome
there is no homologous equivalent portion of the Y
chromosome.
• Those characteristics that are controlled by recessive
alleles on this non-homologous portion of the X
chromosome will appear more frequently in the male.
• This is because there is no homologous portion on the
Y chromosome that could possess the dominant
allele, in which circumstances the recessive allele
would not present itself.
92. Directional selection
• If environmental conditions change, so will the
phenotypes needed for survival. Some
individuals, which fall to the left or right of the
mean, will possess a phenotype more suited to
the new conditions. These individuals will be
more likely to survive and breed. Over time, the
mean will then move in the direction of these
individuals.
93. Stabilising selection
• If environmental conditions remain stable, it is
the individuals with phenotypes closest to the
mean that are favoured. These individuals are
more likely to pass their alleles on to the next
generation. The individuals with extreme
phenotypes are less likely to pass on their
alleles. Therefore stabilising selection tends to
eliminate the extremes
94. Speciation
1. Geographical isolation occurs. A physical barrier splitting
the species into two groups, and preventing them from
mixing.
2. This also prevents interbreeding and forms 2 separate gene
pools.
3. Variation is created between both due to mutation.
4. In each group, there are different
environmental/abiotic/biotic conditions creating selection
pressures.
5. Selection favours the advantageous
features/characteristics/mutation/ allele.
6. This results in only selected organisms surviving to
reproduce.
7. This leads to a change in allele frequency in the groups.
This process occurs over a long period of time.