This document discusses rural-urban migration in India. It provides background on how the British codified India's caste system, contributing to rigid social stratification and a rural-urban divide. After independence, the government documented castes to determine quotas for education and jobs. While this has helped marginalized groups, it has also led to protests over reverse discrimination. The document also examines reasons for migration like employment, education, marriage, and lack of security. It outlines the impacts of migration including increased urbanization, slums, and pressure on resources in cities.

1. Rural - Urban Migration
PRESENT BY :-
RAJKUMAR POREL

2. -:MIGRATION:-

3. Migration – the temporary or permanent movement
of people from one place to another

4. Rural-Urban Divide
Colonial India:-
The castes did not constitute a rigid description of occupation or the social status
but the Britisher’s attempted to equate the Indian Caste System to their own
colonial caste system since the British society was divided by class. Britisher’s
further codified the caste system in India and made it more rigid. A section of
sociologists agree that the caste system initially had several advantages too. It
served as an important tool of social order where mutual consent rather than
competition ruled. The Rural Urban divide played an important role in shaping
economic activities in Indian society. The fluidity of caste system was affected by
the arrival of British policy of divide and rule. Rigid categorization of population
also contributed towards the hardening of caste identities and Rural Urban
Divide.

5. Post -independence:-
In semi rural areas and small towns the system is still very rigid. Caste is also a very
important factor in the politics of India. After independence, the government has
officially documented castes and sub-castes, primarily to determine reservation in
education and jobs through census. The Indian reservation system relies entirely on
quotas for scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward castes. This system has
been fairly successful in bringing the backward castes into the mainstream. However, the
caste based reservations in India has also led to widespread protests due to reverse
discrimination against the upper caste. Also the caste based politics in India has created
various undue tensions amongst the social forces. With a passage of six-decades after
independence the caste based discrimination in our country has been addressed to some
extent but there is still enough scope to bridge the inter-caste gaps in the society. The
economic and social equality, globalization, extensive education, youth empowerment
and social organizations have contributed a great deal in mellowing down the deeply
rooted caste based discrimination in our country. In these situations, it is the
responsibility and greater role of the politicians to reform the society instead of
concentrating on caste-based politics, appeasement and discrimination, which is
unhealthy for the Indian Society.

6. Why do people migrate?
People migrate for many different reasons. These reasons can be classified as economic,
social, political or environmental:
economic migration - moving to find work or follow a particular career path
social migration - moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or
friends
political migration - moving to escape political persecution or war
environmental - causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding
Some people choose to migrate, eg - someone who moves to another country to enhance
their career opportunities. Some people are forced to migrate, eg - someone who moves due
to war or famine.
A refugee is someone who has left their home and does not have a new home to go to.
Often refugees do not carry many possessions with them and do not have a clear idea of
where they may finally settle.

7. Forms of Migration
Forced migration includes refugees, asylum seekers and people
forced to move due to external factors
Family members - people sharing family ties joining people who
have already entered an immigration country
Return migrants - people who return to their countries of origin
after a period in another country
1.Legal migrants
2.Illegal migrants
3. Irregular migrants
4. Refugees
5. Labour migration
Types of Migration

8. Legal Migrants - migrants that legally enter into the country, have a valid
immigrant visa and proper documentation
Illegal migrant – a person who, owing to illegal entry or the expiry of his or her
visa, lacks legal status in a transit or host country. The term applies to migrants
who infringe a country’s admission rules and any other person not authorized to
remain in the host country .
Irregular migrants - The people who enter or remain in a country of which
they are not a citizen in breach of national laws. The IMO estimates that
irregular immigrants account for one-third to one-half of new entrants into
developed countries, marking an increase of 20 per cent over the past ten years
Labour migration - An international migrant worker is defined by the 1990 United
Nations (UN) International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families as “a person who is to be engaged, is engaged or
has been engaged in remunerated activity in a State of which he or she is not a national.
Refugee - A person who has left their home in a country where they feel unsafe
because of persecution or war, and has applied to stay in another country where they feel
safe. If they are allowed to stay they become a refugee.

9. Temporary labour migrants (also known as guest workers or
overseas contract workers): People who migrate for a limited
period of time in order to take up employment and send money
home.
 Highly skilled and business migrants: People with qualifications
as managers, executives, professionals, technicians or similar, who
move within the internal labour markets of trans- national
corporations and international organizations, or who seek
employment through international labour markets for scarce
skills. Many countries welcome such migrants and have special
'skilled and business migration' programs to encourage them to
come.

10. TYPES OF MIGRATION
Internal International
Rural-Urban
Seasonal
Planned
Voluntary
Involuntary

11. INTERNAL MIGRATION
This is migration within a country.
explain what the following types of internal migration are.
•Rural to Urban
•Urban to Rural
•Inter-urban
•Intra-urban
•Transmigration
WHAT IS INTER NATIONAL MIGRATION
International migration is the relatively long distance movement between people.
Emigration is the departure of a person from one country to live permanently in another.
Immigration is the entrance into a country of a person with the aim of living there
permanently.
International migration can be VOLUNTARY or FORCED.

12. -:SOME TERM USED IN MIGRATION:-

13. People migrate due to PUSH and PULL factors
PUSH factors are those that cause people to leave an area
PULL factors are those that encourage people to move to an area
List push and pull factors that you can think of.
High population pressure
Economic hardship
Poor quality of life
Persecution Forced out – ethnic cleansing
No jobs
Starvation and disasters
Marriage
Harsh environment
Push factors
Able to support population
More opportunities
Higher standard of living
Receptive society
Accepts refugees and asylum seekers
City life – bright lights
Partner works there
Pull factors

17. Impacts of Migration :-
Migration is becoming a very important subject for the life of cities. Many opportunities and
attraction of big cities pull large numbers of people to big cities. Migration can have positive
as well as negative effects on the life of the migrants.
Positive Impact
1. Unemployment is reduced and people get better job opportunities.
2. Migration helps in improving the quality of life of people.
3. It helps to improve social life of people as they learn about new culture, customs, and
languages which helps to improve brotherhood among people.
4. Migration of skilled workers leads to a greater economic growth of the region.
5. Children get better opportunities for higher education.
6. The population density is reduced and the birth rate decreases.
Negative Impact
1. The loss of a person from rural areas, impact on the level of output and development of
rural areas.
2. The influx of workers in urban areas increases competition for the job, houses, school
facilities etc.
3. Having large population puts too much pressure on natural resources, amenities
and services.
4. It is difficult for a villager to survive in urban areas because in urban areas there is
no natural environment and pure air. They have to pay for each and everything.

18. 5. Migration changes the population of a place, therefore, the distribution of the
population is uneven in India.
6. Many migrants are completely illiterate and uneducated, therefore, they are not only
unfit for most jobs, but also lack basic knowledge and life skills.
7. Poverty makes them unable to live a normal and healthy life.
8. Children growing up in poverty have no access to proper nutrition, education or health.
9. Migration increased the slum areas in cities which increase many problems such as
unhygienic conditions, crime, pollution etc.
10. Sometimes migrants are exploited.
11. Migration is one of the main causes of increasing nuclear family where children grow up
without a wider family circle.

19. 4 Major Causes of Migration in India
Migrations are caused by a variety of factors including economic, social and political factors. They are
briefly described as under.
1. Marriage:
Marriage is a very important social factor of migration. Every girl has to migrate to her in-law’s place of
residence after marriage. Thus, the entire female population of India has to migrate over short or long
distance. Among the people who shifted their resistance more than half (56.1%) moved due to marriage
in 1991.
2. Employment:
People migrate in large number from rural to urban areas in search of employment. The agricultural
base of rural areas does not provide employment to all the people living there. Even the small-scale and
cottage industries of the villages fail to provide employment to the entire rural folk. Contrary to this,
urban areas provide vast scope for employment in industries, trade, transport and services. About 8.8
per cent of migrants migrated for employment in 1991.
3. Education:
Rural areas, by and large, lack educational facilities, especially those of higher education and rural
people have to migrate to the urban centres for this purpose. Many of them settle down in the cities for
earning a livelihood after completing their education.
4. Lack of Security:
Political disturbances and interethnic conflicts drive people away from their homes. Large number of
people has migrated out of Jammu and Kashmir and Assam during the last few years due to disturbed
conditions there.

20. People also migrate on a short-term basis in search of better opportunities for recreation,
health care facilities, and legal advices or for availing service which the nearby towns provide.
Table 1 gives an idea of impact of different reasons on migration.
Table 1 India: Proportion of in migrants according to Causes of Migration, 1991:
Reasons of
Migration
Total migrants
(Lakh persons)
Per cent of
Total in-
migrants
Per cent of
male in-
migrants
Per cent of
female in-
migrants
Marriage 1303 56.1 4.0 76.1
Shifting of family 356 15.3 26.6 11.0
Employment 204 8.8 11.0 1.8
Education 45 2.0 4.8 0.8
Business 53 2.3 6.0 0.5
Other reasons 360 15.5 31.6 9.8

21. Intra State and Inter State Migration as seen in India
(i) Intra State Migration:
This type of migration takes place between two parts of the same state. Table 12.2 shows that
a very high proportion (69.33%) of the intra state migrants was classed as rural to rural
migrants while 9 10 per cent of the migrants were classed as urban to urban, 15.74 per cent
rural to urban and 5.84 per cent urban to rural.
Nearly three fourth of the total intra-state migrants were females, mainly caused by marriage.
As much as 75.77 per cent of the female migrants belonged to the rural to rural, 11.95 per
cent rural to urban, 5.23 per cent urban to rural and 7.04 per cent urban to rural.
Among the male migrants, nearly half belonged to rural to rural, 15.38 per cent were urban to
urban 27.27 per cent were rural to urban and 7.68% were urban to rural.
(ii) Inter State Migration:
Volume of interstate migration, i.e., migration between two states is much smaller than the
intra- state migration simply because of increase in distance. Most of the inter-state migration
takes place along border between two neighbouring states. Of the total inter-state migrants
28.4 were rural to rural, 32.83 rural to urban, 7.17 urban to rural and 34.6 urban to urban
(Table 3).

22. Type of Migration Total Males Females
Rural to Rural 28.40 18.02 36.71
Rural to Urban 32.83 41.42 25.95
Urban to Rural 7.17 6.67 7.58
Urban to Urban 34.6 37.90 29.75
Percentage of total
inter-state migrants
100.00 44.48 55.52
Table 3 Inter State Migration Patterns in Percentages:
Table 3 shows that females outnumbered males in half the streams of inter-state migration.
Of the total 36.71 per cent were rural to rural, 25.95 per cent rural to urban, 7.58 per cent
urban to rural and 55.52% urban to urban. Of the total male inter-state migrants, about 18
per cent were rural to rural, 41.42 per cent rural to urban, 6.67 per cent urban to rural and
44.48 per cent urban to urban.

23. Migration and Trends of Migration in India
The movement of population from one region to another is termed as migration. Migration is
commonly of two types: temporary and permanent.
Temporary migration encompasses annual, seasonal or even daily movements of population
between two cities; it is also called ‘commutation’.
Migration can be divided into the following types on the basis of origin and destination:
(a) Rural to rural R → R
(b) Rural to urban R → U
(c) Urban to urban U → U
(d) Urban to rural U → R
In some cases, the population moves from villages to small towns and then to a bigger
metropolitan city: this may be termed ‘step-wise migration’.
Migration owing to a number of attractions offered by a city is interpreted as migration due
to ‘push’ factors; on the other hand, people move out of villages due to ‘pull’ factors — such
as better opportunities of employment, education, recreation, health care facilities, business,
etc. outside villages. Some ‘push’ factors are unemployment, poverty, social insecurity,
political instability and ethnic conflicts.

24. Trends of Migration in India:
Pattern The pattern of internal migration may be divided into the following: intra-state
movement in the case of movement of people within the state itself, and inter-state
movement when the migrants cross the borders of a state and settle down in another state.
The bulk of intra-state migrations were not caused by economic factors. Since about three-
fourths of all migrants were females, it becomes obvious that marriage was the prime reason
for such migration.
Generally, about one-half of male intra-state migrants belong to rural-to-rural category. Most
of these R→R migrants are from backward states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan. It is obvious that migrants moved from their place of origin in search
of better jobs in agricultural farms or other establishments in rural areas.
Out-migration mostly takes place from underdeveloped states like Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. Migrants had a tendency to move into comparatively
developed regions like West Bengal, Maharashtra, the National Capital Territory of Delhi,
Chandigarh, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Assam and Madhya Pradesh also witnessed
in-migration but on a lesser scale.
Uneven development between regions is believed to be the major cause of migration. It is
unfortunate that most of the major metropolitan cities of India are currently witnessing heavy
in- migration and consequent population growth due to work opportunities offered by these
cities. Cities like Delhi, for example, are badly affected by huge influx of migrants.

25. Impact of Migration on Major Cities in India
In India problems related to massive poverty- induced migration from rural to the
major metros are due to lopsided, unplanned and over-congested urbanisation
which has caused overall deterioration of urban environment in India.
Most of the metropolitan cities are growing at an alarmingly fast rate and,
according to UN estimates, most of them will double their population in the next 12
to 15 years.
Increasing low-quality migration of the poor to urban areas has already led to urban
involution, decay, poverty, exploitation, insecurity and inequality among the
migrant population. As most of the migrants are poor, landless, illiterate and lack
basic skills, they fail to get jobs in the capital-intensive production system of urban
India. These unskilled migrants are absorbed by the unorganised sectors which are
characterised by low productivity, tremendous competition, poor pay and
insecurity.

26. Even if such migrations help the rural poor to avoid starvation death, it causes a
huge loss in terms of human resource and national potential. As a consequence,
major urban centres of India have become much involuted, not evoluted, i.e., they
have grown merely in population, not in prosperity. Mega-cities look like over-
blown villages without urban culture and urban functional characteristics.
During the last few decades, acute problems have arisen—extreme housing
scarcities, and frequent breakdown of essential municipal services such as water
supply, electricity, sewerage, transport—due to the massive pressure of population
on the basic urban facilities.
The problems caused by migration can be checked by curbing population growth
and promoting a balanced economic development in the country. It is imperative
that the government, NGOs, scholars, planners, policy-makers and administrators
cooperate and formulate well- thought out action plans for remedying the
situation.

27. Rural to Urban Migration
Urban development was created as a consequence of industrialization in the
developed world… ‘urban pull’… industry then the city.
Urban development was created by pop growth and migration to urban centres in
developing countries….city first then industry… ‘rural push’
Move from poverty and hunger to employment, services & water supply.
Impact of rural to urban migration in developing countries:
Migrants mostly young adults…> high fertility rate & so high rate of natural pop
increase…. cities expand rapidly.
Young pop accounts for over 60% of urban pop growth.
Megacities… pop over 10m. E.g.. Calcutta, Lagos.
Squatter settlements called shanties & bustees (India) dev. on edge of city as city
grows too quickly & cannot support jobs & housing.

28.  Children forced to become beggars, labourers & prostitutes at a very young
age…. family structures break down due to poverty.
 Males more likely to migrate leaving an imbalance in gender.
Case study: Bustees in Calcutta & Bombay
Over 60% of Calcutta’s pop live in bustees and over half a million are homeless,
(pavement dwellers) sleeping on the street, live under bridges or along the canal.
Permanent slum dwellers are protected by law in Calcutta. 77% of families have
only one room to live in.
Pavement dwellers have no rights.
Open sewers common & disease widespread.
Warm monsoon weather creates malaria.
Girls are restricted in the education they can receive
Child labour common & employ. prospects without education is poor

29. Impact of rural to urban migration in developed world:
‘Urban sprawl’… rapid spread of urban regions into countryside.
Consists of large housing estates on edge of city…. quality housing with front &
rear garden… contrast to bustees.
Restrict urban sprawl by creating growth boundaries & with dev. of growth centres
(with leisure & work facilities) some distance from city. E.g. Leystas & Almere in
Holland away from Randstad.
Depop of rural areas due to migration to city…E.g. West of Irl
Young leave farms & rural areas lack pop & services.
Ethnic zone & ghettos in inner city as large groups move there.
Redev of inner cities (Dublin Docklands) and new apartments keeps pop there….
Mainly young single, close to work.
Counter-urbanization… people move away from city due to high cost of housing
& poor quality of life, traffic, crime, lack of space.

30. Industry reluctant to set up in rural region due to lack of services &
skilled workers
Daily movement of rural dwellers to & from work creates traffic
chaos.
Environmental impact caused by urban expansion:
Industry, homes & cars producing greenhouse gases… atmosphere
overheat---> global warming.
Smog, a mixture of smoke & fog, builds up…. respitory problems
Urban waste… up to 30% untreated and goes directly into rivers.

31. PROBLEMS OF MIGRATION

33. THANK YOU