Roots have several key functions including water and mineral absorption, transport, anchoring the plant, and storing food. There are three main types of root systems: taproots, lateral roots, and adventitious roots. Roots develop from root caps, epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, and vascular cylinders. Lateral and adventitious roots develop from the pericycle. Roots differ from shoots in their development, structure, and vascular tissue organization.
This document discusses plant anatomy and tissues. It covers the epidermis, stomata types in monocots and dicots, primary tissues including dermal, ground and vascular tissues, and secondary tissues formed from vascular cambium including xylem, phloem, cork and rays. It also discusses laticifers - latex containing cells or chains, their articulated or non-articulated structure, and functions of latex.
This document summarizes plant anatomy and tissue types. It discusses the different types of meristems, fundamental tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, and conducting tissues like xylem and phloem. Key points covered include the different types of meristems based on location and origin, the tissues of the root apex versus shoot apex, the characteristics and origins of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues, and details on xylem and phloem components like vessels, tracheids, fibers, sieve tubes and companion cells.
1. The document discusses the evolution of plants, beginning with descriptions of Elodea cell structures like chloroplasts and amyloplasts.
2. It then covers the life cycles of plants like Elodea, which alternate between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations. This is known as the alternation of generations.
3. Several groups of early land plants are introduced, including bryophytes like liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Details of structures like archegonia and antheridia in reproduction are provided.
The document contains notes from botany lectures covering various topics:
1. It defines key terms like dichlamydeous and homochlamydeous related to flower structure.
2. It describes the development of flowers from initiation through organ formation in Arabidopsis thaliana.
3. It provides diagrams and explanations of the structure and function of stamens, carpels, and the male gametophyte.
4. It compares the differences between carpels, pistils, and gynoecium and discusses the advantages of closed carpels in angiosperms.
1. The document describes the ontogenetic development and anatomy of plant stems.
2. It discusses the primary tissues of stems, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and stele, as well as the nature of stems as herbaceous or woody.
3. The document provides detailed information on the structure and development of vascular bundles, vascular cambium, xylem differentiation, leaf traces, and classification of stele types in plant stems.
This document discusses various modes of transport in plants. It describes:
1) Passive transport processes like diffusion and osmosis that move substances down their concentration gradients without external energy input. Water potential and membrane transport proteins are also discussed.
2) Active transport mechanisms that require energy to move substances against gradients, such as sucrose-hydrogen cotransport.
3) Long distance transport within plants, including lateral transport in cell walls and plasmodesmata, as well as bulk flow transport in xylem and phloem between organs.
This document discusses the evolution and diversity of vascular plants. It defines key characteristics of tracheophytes, including vascular tissue, supportive tissue, roots and shoots. It describes lignin and secondary cell walls. It discusses the alternation of generations life cycle and key plant tissues/structures like xylem, phloem, sclerenchyma and fibers. The document outlines the major groups of vascular plants including rhyniophytes, lycopodiophytes, and euphyllophytes. It provides examples of extant lycophytes like club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts.
This document discusses plant anatomy and tissues. It covers the epidermis, stomata types in monocots and dicots, primary tissues including dermal, ground and vascular tissues, and secondary tissues formed from vascular cambium including xylem, phloem, cork and rays. It also discusses laticifers - latex containing cells or chains, their articulated or non-articulated structure, and functions of latex.
This document summarizes plant anatomy and tissue types. It discusses the different types of meristems, fundamental tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, and conducting tissues like xylem and phloem. Key points covered include the different types of meristems based on location and origin, the tissues of the root apex versus shoot apex, the characteristics and origins of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma tissues, and details on xylem and phloem components like vessels, tracheids, fibers, sieve tubes and companion cells.
1. The document discusses the evolution of plants, beginning with descriptions of Elodea cell structures like chloroplasts and amyloplasts.
2. It then covers the life cycles of plants like Elodea, which alternate between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations. This is known as the alternation of generations.
3. Several groups of early land plants are introduced, including bryophytes like liverworts, hornworts and mosses. Details of structures like archegonia and antheridia in reproduction are provided.
The document contains notes from botany lectures covering various topics:
1. It defines key terms like dichlamydeous and homochlamydeous related to flower structure.
2. It describes the development of flowers from initiation through organ formation in Arabidopsis thaliana.
3. It provides diagrams and explanations of the structure and function of stamens, carpels, and the male gametophyte.
4. It compares the differences between carpels, pistils, and gynoecium and discusses the advantages of closed carpels in angiosperms.
1. The document describes the ontogenetic development and anatomy of plant stems.
2. It discusses the primary tissues of stems, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and stele, as well as the nature of stems as herbaceous or woody.
3. The document provides detailed information on the structure and development of vascular bundles, vascular cambium, xylem differentiation, leaf traces, and classification of stele types in plant stems.
This document discusses various modes of transport in plants. It describes:
1) Passive transport processes like diffusion and osmosis that move substances down their concentration gradients without external energy input. Water potential and membrane transport proteins are also discussed.
2) Active transport mechanisms that require energy to move substances against gradients, such as sucrose-hydrogen cotransport.
3) Long distance transport within plants, including lateral transport in cell walls and plasmodesmata, as well as bulk flow transport in xylem and phloem between organs.
This document discusses the evolution and diversity of vascular plants. It defines key characteristics of tracheophytes, including vascular tissue, supportive tissue, roots and shoots. It describes lignin and secondary cell walls. It discusses the alternation of generations life cycle and key plant tissues/structures like xylem, phloem, sclerenchyma and fibers. The document outlines the major groups of vascular plants including rhyniophytes, lycopodiophytes, and euphyllophytes. It provides examples of extant lycophytes like club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts.
This document provides information about the monocotyledonous flowering plants, or monocots. It discusses their defining characteristics and classification. Specifically, it describes the monocot orders Alismatales, Arecales, Zingiberales, and Poales. For each order, it lists the included families and provides details about their morphological features and economically important species. Images are included to illustrate various monocot structures and taxa. The document is an informative overview of monocot diversity and systematics.
This document discusses research methodology and design. It covers key aspects of research design including selecting subjects, controlling variables, establishing evaluation criteria, and ensuring internal and external validity. Factors to consider in research design are the objectives, feasibility, ethics, efficiency, and validity. The document also outlines steps in the research process such as developing data collection tools, planning analysis, collecting and processing data, conducting analysis and interpretation. Statistical tests are matched to different research designs and levels of measurement.
The document outlines the key components and structure of a research proposal, including an introduction with background and problem statements, objectives, hypotheses, significance and scope. It describes the typical sections of a proposal such as literature review, materials and methods, possible outcomes and conclusions, timeline and budget. Guidance is provided on writing each section, with emphasis on clarity, specificity, brevity and organizational structure.
Research Process- Objective, Hypothesis (Lec2)Jasper Obico
The research process document outlines the typical steps involved in conducting research including formulating the research problem, objectives and hypotheses, reviewing literature, designing the study, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and reporting findings. Key aspects that are discussed in more detail include properly defining the research problem and objectives, developing testable hypotheses, and identifying relevant independent and dependent variables.
This document provides an overview of the research process and guidelines for reviewing related literature. It discusses the importance of reviewing related literature to avoid duplicating past studies and provide context for the research problem. The review of related literature should include recent, objective materials that are directly relevant to the study, such as findings, methods, and conclusions from past investigations. When writing the literature review, the researcher should paraphrase sources, cite authors, include only relevant information, and relate sources to the research topic. The review should have a logical flow and avoid lengthy quotes or a list-like format.
BIOLOGY FORM 4 CHAPTER 3 - MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANENirmala Josephine
The document discusses the movement of substances across cell membranes. It begins by outlining the key topics and learning outcomes, which include explaining passive transport mechanisms like diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is defined as the passive movement of substances from high to low concentration down a gradient. Facilitated diffusion also occurs passively with the help of channel and carrier proteins. Osmosis is specifically the diffusion of water across membranes to equalize its concentration. The document then details these processes and provides examples to illustrate passive transport in organisms.
Vc 2 X 2 P Secondary Body Of The PlantJasper Obico
The document discusses the vascular cambium and secondary growth in plants. It describes:
1. The tissues that make up secondary plant bodies including vascular cambium, secondary xylem, secondary phloem, and periderm.
2. The vascular cambium itself - it is a lateral meristem found in vascular plants that produces secondary xylem and phloem. It is composed of fusiform and ray initials.
3. The development and cell types of secondary xylem (wood) and phloem in both gymnosperms and angiosperms. Key cell types include tracheids, fibers, vessels, and parenchyma.
Collenchyma is a living plant tissue composed of elongated cells with thickened primary cell walls. It is found as a supporting tissue in growing plant organs and mature herbaceous organs with little secondary growth. Collenchyma cells have complete protoplasts and retain the ability to resume meristematic activity. Their cell walls are typically unevenly thickened and non-lignified. Collenchyma provides support to growing leaves and stems as the cells are plastic and capable of extension without hindering elongation.
In this presentation, concept of xerophytes, types of xerophytes and adaptations (morphological, anatomical and physiological) developed in them are explained.
This document summarizes secondary growth in dicot roots. It begins by explaining the importance of secondary growth in increasing a plant's ability to absorb and transport water and minerals. It then describes the anatomy of a dicot root, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular strands, and pith. The document notes that secondary growth in roots occurs through the formation of a cambial ring, unlike in dicot stems. It also provides brief definitions of xylem and phloem tissue and explains that roots can form periderm through a similar process of secondary growth.
This document summarizes secondary growth in dicot roots. It begins by explaining the importance of secondary growth in increasing a plant's ability to absorb and transport water and minerals. It then describes the anatomy of a dicot root, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular strands, and pith. The document notes that secondary growth in roots occurs through the formation of a cambial ring, unlike in dicot stems. It also provides brief definitions of xylem and phloem tissue and explains that roots can form periderm through a similar process of secondary growth.
This document discusses plant tissues and how they are organized in plant structures like stems, roots, and leaves. It describes the basic tissue types found in plants like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, as well as complex tissues like xylem, phloem and epidermis. The chapter also examines how plant tissues develop and are arranged differently between monocots and dicots.
Coral biology and ecology was discussed, including what coral is, how it reproduces and spreads, how it gets its color, how old coral colonies can be, and the types of coral found in Hawaii. Coral reefs worldwide were summarized, noting they cover over 600,000 square kilometers and support over 25% of marine species. Key facts about coral included that it is over 500 million years old, 90% of live coral in the Florida Keys was lost since 1975, and colonies can be up to 1,000 years old and 25 feet tall. Larval dispersal and endemism were briefly covered. Hard or stony corals and their tissue, diet, and symbiotic relationship with algae were described.
This document discusses plant tissues and how they are organized in plant structures like stems, roots, and leaves. It describes the basic tissue types found in plants like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, as well as complex tissues like xylem, phloem and epidermis. The chapter also examines how plant tissues develop and are arranged differently between monocots and dicots.
Stems have several functions including supporting leaves, flowers, and fruits; transporting water and nutrients between roots and other plant parts; and storing food. They originate from the epicotyl region of seed embryos. Herbaceous stems are soft and green while woody stems are tough with secondary growth. Stems have internal specialized tissues like xylem and phloem that conduct water and nutrients respectively. Some stems are modified for storage, protection, or reproduction.
Unit1 part 1 (1).pptx dicot anatomy in which it will show the anatomical stru...prekshanalwaya
1. The document describes the structure and function of different parts of the root, stem, and leaf in plants.
2. The root has key layers including the piliferous layer, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, and vascular bundles. The stem contains an epidermis, cortex with hypodermis, ground tissue, and vascular bundles.
3. Leaves have an upper and lower epidermis, palisade and spongy mesophyll tissue, and vascular bundles. These structures allow the plant to absorb water and nutrients, provide support, transport materials, and perform photosynthesis.
Ecological groups are defined as groups of plants that grow under the same environmental factors. There are four main ecological groups: hydrophytes, xerophytes, halophytes, and epiphytes. Hydrophytes grow in or near water and have adaptations like reduced roots and stems, thin leaves, and air cavities for gas exchange. Xerophytes grow in dry areas and have adaptations like deep roots, small or absent leaves, waxy coatings, and succulence to retain water. Halophytes grow in saline soils and have adaptations like succulence, salt glands, and negative geotropism. Epiphytes grow on other plants and have clinging roots and thick leaves and cut
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that support the cell and allow movement. It contains microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Microfilaments are thin actin fibers involved in cell motility. Microtubules are hollow tubes that determine cell shape and transport. Intermediate filaments provide strength and connect cells. The cell cycle involves growth, DNA replication, and cell division through mitosis and cytokinesis.
This document discusses pearl culture techniques. It describes the three categories of pearls - natural, artificial, and cultured. Cultured pearls are the main type sold today, involving grafting mantle tissue and nuclei into oysters, which are then cultured for 2-3 years. The key steps of the culture process are site selection considering water availability and protection from floods, collecting and preparing mantle tissue grafts, inserting grafts and nuclei into oysters, culturing the oysters by maintaining suitable pond conditions, and harvesting and storing the pearls after 2-3 years. Maintaining proper conditions is important for producing high quality pearls.
This document summarizes the key plant organs - meristems, roots, stems, and leaves. It describes the tissues and growth patterns of each organ. Apical and lateral meristems are responsible for primary and secondary growth, respectively. Roots anchor the plant and absorb water/minerals, having root hairs, a root cap, and tissues like the epidermis, cortex, and stele. Stems support leaves and transport fluids, with tissues like the epidermis, vascular bundles, and pith. Leaves undergo photosynthesis, with tissues such as the epidermis, mesophyll, and veins. Leaf shapes, venation patterns, and arrangements vary between plant types and environments.
This document provides information about plant tissues and organs. It describes the four main types of plant tissues - meristematic tissues, protective tissues, fundamental tissues, and vascular tissues. Meristematic tissues are responsible for growth. Protective tissues include epidermis and cork. Fundamental tissues comprise the mesophyll and provide structure and storage. Vascular tissues transport water and nutrients. Roots, stems, and leaves are the main vegetative plant organs, while flowers, fruits, and seeds are the reproductive organs.
1. Xylem is the water-conducting tissue found in tracheophytes. It is composed of tracheary elements, fibers, and parenchyma cells.
2. Tracheary elements include tracheids and vessels. Tracheids are imperforate while vessels have perforations along their length.
3. Phloem is the food-conducting tissue. It consists of sieve elements, companion cells, and parenchyma. Sieve elements transport sugars and other molecules between source and sink tissues.
This document provides information about the monocotyledonous flowering plants, or monocots. It discusses their defining characteristics and classification. Specifically, it describes the monocot orders Alismatales, Arecales, Zingiberales, and Poales. For each order, it lists the included families and provides details about their morphological features and economically important species. Images are included to illustrate various monocot structures and taxa. The document is an informative overview of monocot diversity and systematics.
This document discusses research methodology and design. It covers key aspects of research design including selecting subjects, controlling variables, establishing evaluation criteria, and ensuring internal and external validity. Factors to consider in research design are the objectives, feasibility, ethics, efficiency, and validity. The document also outlines steps in the research process such as developing data collection tools, planning analysis, collecting and processing data, conducting analysis and interpretation. Statistical tests are matched to different research designs and levels of measurement.
The document outlines the key components and structure of a research proposal, including an introduction with background and problem statements, objectives, hypotheses, significance and scope. It describes the typical sections of a proposal such as literature review, materials and methods, possible outcomes and conclusions, timeline and budget. Guidance is provided on writing each section, with emphasis on clarity, specificity, brevity and organizational structure.
Research Process- Objective, Hypothesis (Lec2)Jasper Obico
The research process document outlines the typical steps involved in conducting research including formulating the research problem, objectives and hypotheses, reviewing literature, designing the study, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions, and reporting findings. Key aspects that are discussed in more detail include properly defining the research problem and objectives, developing testable hypotheses, and identifying relevant independent and dependent variables.
This document provides an overview of the research process and guidelines for reviewing related literature. It discusses the importance of reviewing related literature to avoid duplicating past studies and provide context for the research problem. The review of related literature should include recent, objective materials that are directly relevant to the study, such as findings, methods, and conclusions from past investigations. When writing the literature review, the researcher should paraphrase sources, cite authors, include only relevant information, and relate sources to the research topic. The review should have a logical flow and avoid lengthy quotes or a list-like format.
BIOLOGY FORM 4 CHAPTER 3 - MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANENirmala Josephine
The document discusses the movement of substances across cell membranes. It begins by outlining the key topics and learning outcomes, which include explaining passive transport mechanisms like diffusion and osmosis. Diffusion is defined as the passive movement of substances from high to low concentration down a gradient. Facilitated diffusion also occurs passively with the help of channel and carrier proteins. Osmosis is specifically the diffusion of water across membranes to equalize its concentration. The document then details these processes and provides examples to illustrate passive transport in organisms.
Vc 2 X 2 P Secondary Body Of The PlantJasper Obico
The document discusses the vascular cambium and secondary growth in plants. It describes:
1. The tissues that make up secondary plant bodies including vascular cambium, secondary xylem, secondary phloem, and periderm.
2. The vascular cambium itself - it is a lateral meristem found in vascular plants that produces secondary xylem and phloem. It is composed of fusiform and ray initials.
3. The development and cell types of secondary xylem (wood) and phloem in both gymnosperms and angiosperms. Key cell types include tracheids, fibers, vessels, and parenchyma.
Collenchyma is a living plant tissue composed of elongated cells with thickened primary cell walls. It is found as a supporting tissue in growing plant organs and mature herbaceous organs with little secondary growth. Collenchyma cells have complete protoplasts and retain the ability to resume meristematic activity. Their cell walls are typically unevenly thickened and non-lignified. Collenchyma provides support to growing leaves and stems as the cells are plastic and capable of extension without hindering elongation.
In this presentation, concept of xerophytes, types of xerophytes and adaptations (morphological, anatomical and physiological) developed in them are explained.
This document summarizes secondary growth in dicot roots. It begins by explaining the importance of secondary growth in increasing a plant's ability to absorb and transport water and minerals. It then describes the anatomy of a dicot root, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular strands, and pith. The document notes that secondary growth in roots occurs through the formation of a cambial ring, unlike in dicot stems. It also provides brief definitions of xylem and phloem tissue and explains that roots can form periderm through a similar process of secondary growth.
This document summarizes secondary growth in dicot roots. It begins by explaining the importance of secondary growth in increasing a plant's ability to absorb and transport water and minerals. It then describes the anatomy of a dicot root, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular strands, and pith. The document notes that secondary growth in roots occurs through the formation of a cambial ring, unlike in dicot stems. It also provides brief definitions of xylem and phloem tissue and explains that roots can form periderm through a similar process of secondary growth.
This document discusses plant tissues and how they are organized in plant structures like stems, roots, and leaves. It describes the basic tissue types found in plants like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, as well as complex tissues like xylem, phloem and epidermis. The chapter also examines how plant tissues develop and are arranged differently between monocots and dicots.
Coral biology and ecology was discussed, including what coral is, how it reproduces and spreads, how it gets its color, how old coral colonies can be, and the types of coral found in Hawaii. Coral reefs worldwide were summarized, noting they cover over 600,000 square kilometers and support over 25% of marine species. Key facts about coral included that it is over 500 million years old, 90% of live coral in the Florida Keys was lost since 1975, and colonies can be up to 1,000 years old and 25 feet tall. Larval dispersal and endemism were briefly covered. Hard or stony corals and their tissue, diet, and symbiotic relationship with algae were described.
This document discusses plant tissues and how they are organized in plant structures like stems, roots, and leaves. It describes the basic tissue types found in plants like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, as well as complex tissues like xylem, phloem and epidermis. The chapter also examines how plant tissues develop and are arranged differently between monocots and dicots.
Stems have several functions including supporting leaves, flowers, and fruits; transporting water and nutrients between roots and other plant parts; and storing food. They originate from the epicotyl region of seed embryos. Herbaceous stems are soft and green while woody stems are tough with secondary growth. Stems have internal specialized tissues like xylem and phloem that conduct water and nutrients respectively. Some stems are modified for storage, protection, or reproduction.
Unit1 part 1 (1).pptx dicot anatomy in which it will show the anatomical stru...prekshanalwaya
1. The document describes the structure and function of different parts of the root, stem, and leaf in plants.
2. The root has key layers including the piliferous layer, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, and vascular bundles. The stem contains an epidermis, cortex with hypodermis, ground tissue, and vascular bundles.
3. Leaves have an upper and lower epidermis, palisade and spongy mesophyll tissue, and vascular bundles. These structures allow the plant to absorb water and nutrients, provide support, transport materials, and perform photosynthesis.
Ecological groups are defined as groups of plants that grow under the same environmental factors. There are four main ecological groups: hydrophytes, xerophytes, halophytes, and epiphytes. Hydrophytes grow in or near water and have adaptations like reduced roots and stems, thin leaves, and air cavities for gas exchange. Xerophytes grow in dry areas and have adaptations like deep roots, small or absent leaves, waxy coatings, and succulence to retain water. Halophytes grow in saline soils and have adaptations like succulence, salt glands, and negative geotropism. Epiphytes grow on other plants and have clinging roots and thick leaves and cut
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that support the cell and allow movement. It contains microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Microfilaments are thin actin fibers involved in cell motility. Microtubules are hollow tubes that determine cell shape and transport. Intermediate filaments provide strength and connect cells. The cell cycle involves growth, DNA replication, and cell division through mitosis and cytokinesis.
This document discusses pearl culture techniques. It describes the three categories of pearls - natural, artificial, and cultured. Cultured pearls are the main type sold today, involving grafting mantle tissue and nuclei into oysters, which are then cultured for 2-3 years. The key steps of the culture process are site selection considering water availability and protection from floods, collecting and preparing mantle tissue grafts, inserting grafts and nuclei into oysters, culturing the oysters by maintaining suitable pond conditions, and harvesting and storing the pearls after 2-3 years. Maintaining proper conditions is important for producing high quality pearls.
This document summarizes the key plant organs - meristems, roots, stems, and leaves. It describes the tissues and growth patterns of each organ. Apical and lateral meristems are responsible for primary and secondary growth, respectively. Roots anchor the plant and absorb water/minerals, having root hairs, a root cap, and tissues like the epidermis, cortex, and stele. Stems support leaves and transport fluids, with tissues like the epidermis, vascular bundles, and pith. Leaves undergo photosynthesis, with tissues such as the epidermis, mesophyll, and veins. Leaf shapes, venation patterns, and arrangements vary between plant types and environments.
This document provides information about plant tissues and organs. It describes the four main types of plant tissues - meristematic tissues, protective tissues, fundamental tissues, and vascular tissues. Meristematic tissues are responsible for growth. Protective tissues include epidermis and cork. Fundamental tissues comprise the mesophyll and provide structure and storage. Vascular tissues transport water and nutrients. Roots, stems, and leaves are the main vegetative plant organs, while flowers, fruits, and seeds are the reproductive organs.
1. Xylem is the water-conducting tissue found in tracheophytes. It is composed of tracheary elements, fibers, and parenchyma cells.
2. Tracheary elements include tracheids and vessels. Tracheids are imperforate while vessels have perforations along their length.
3. Phloem is the food-conducting tissue. It consists of sieve elements, companion cells, and parenchyma. Sieve elements transport sugars and other molecules between source and sink tissues.
This document summarizes plant tissue systems. It describes the three main types of tissues - meristematic, permanent and secretory. Permanent tissues are further divided into simple tissues like parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma, and complex tissues like xylem and phloem. Parenchyma is the most common simple tissue and performs many functions. Xylem conducts water and minerals throughout the plant and consists of tracheids, vessels, fibers and parenchyma. Phloem transports organic compounds and consists of sieve elements, companion cells, parenchyma and fibers. The document also discusses secretory tissues and their structures.
Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll-containing cells produce carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using energy from sunlight. During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen using light energy captured by chlorophyll. The key structures and functions of leaves that facilitate photosynthesis include stomata for gas exchange, veins for transport, palisade mesophyll containing many chloroplasts for photosynthesis, and spongy mesophyll for gas diffusion. Plants have adapted traits like stomata distribution and chloroplast placement to optimize photosynthesis according to their habitat.
Monocots and dicots are named for the number of seed leaves, or cotyledons, in the plant embryo.
Vascular bundle: A strand of tissue that carry water and nutrients through the body of the plant
Entry of water through the roots
Transpiration pull draws water and mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves
The document describes the cross sections of roots and stems. It notes that roots have an epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle and central vascular system made up of xylem and phloem. Stems function for transportation via xylem and phloem and for support. Their cross section includes protective tissues like epidermis and cork, vascular bundles containing xylem and phloem, meristematic tissues for growth, and storage tissues in the cortex and pith. Monocot and dicot stems differ in whether they have a cortex or pith for storage.
Gregor Mendel conducted experiments breeding pea plants that varied in traits like flower color. By carefully tracking the inheritance of traits over generations, he discovered two laws of heredity: segregation and independent assortment. Mendel found that traits separate, or segregate, so offspring receive one allele for each trait from each parent. He also found that different traits assort independently, resulting in unpredictable combinations in offspring. Mendel's laws explained the patterns of inheritance he observed, like the 3:1 ratio of dominant to recessive traits in the second filial generation. His work established the foundations of classical genetics.
Evolution of plants and non vascular.pptxJasper Obico
1. The document provides an overview of the evolution of plants, beginning with aquatic algae like Elodea and Charales that reproduced through isogamy or oogamy, and the first land plants like mosses, liverworts, and hornworts that have alternation of generations with a haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generation.
2. It describes key characteristics of bryophytes like mosses, liverworts, and hornworts including their sexual reproduction through archegonia and antheridia and asexual reproduction through spores.
3. The life cycles of model bryophytes like Marchantia, Sphagnum moss,
This document provides an overview of the eudicots, which are characterized by tricolpate or tricolpate-derived pollen grains. It discusses the major orders of core eudicots including Ranunculales, Caryophyllales, Saxifragales, rosids, and asterids. Specific families are highlighted such as Myrtaceae, Fabaceae, and the three subfamilies within Fabaceae. Diagrams are included to illustrate floral characteristics of various plants within these groups.
This document provides information about flowering plant diversity and classification, focusing on the order Asterids. It discusses the characteristics of the Asterids, including unitegmic ovules that are tenuinucellate. It then lists several orders within the Asterids, including the Cornales, Ericales, Gentianales, Lamiales, Solanales, and more. For each order, it provides the included families. The document also provides more detailed descriptions of characteristics for several economically and medicinally important families, including Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, and Asteraceae.
- Lycophytes were some of the earliest land plants and include club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts. They produce spores through sporophylls, which are modified leaves containing sporangia. Most lycophytes are homosporous, producing one type of spore.
- Seedless vascular plants evolved to have two types of vascular tissue - xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and minerals through dead tracheid cells, while phloem transports sugars and other organic compounds through living cells. Roots evolved from subterranean stems to anchor plants and absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Leaves evolved from stem outgrowths to increase
This document provides an overview of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It discusses key figures and findings that influenced Darwin's thinking, such as Linnaeus' taxonomy, Lamarck's theory of inheritance of acquired traits, and Lyell and Hutton's theories of gradual geological change. The document also summarizes Darwin's two main ideas in Origin of Species: that evolution explains life's diversity and unity, and that natural selection is a mechanism of adaptive evolution. It provides examples of natural selection in action and evidence that supports evolution, such as molecular homologies and transitional fossils.
The document discusses the flow of genetic information from DNA to protein. It describes how DNA contains the genetic code in the form of nucleotide sequences. During transcription, DNA directs the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA). Translation then uses the mRNA to synthesize polypeptides through the ribosome. George Beadle and Edward Tatum provided evidence supporting the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis through experiments with bread mold mutants. Their work showed that each gene directs the production of a specific enzyme.
This document provides an overview of ecology and the biosphere from an introductory ecology textbook. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences or less:
Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Ecologists study these interactions across different levels from individual organisms to the entire biosphere. The document outlines the different focus areas of ecology including organismal, population, community, ecosystem, landscape, and global ecology.
It then discusses how ecology links to evolutionary biology and informs environmental issues. Various abiotic and biotic factors that influence the distribution of species are examined, including dispersal, behavior, climate, temperature, water, and interactions with other species. Finally, it provides an overview
1. The document discusses the evolution of plants from algae to land plants. It describes key events in plant evolution including the development of cells, chloroplasts, and alternation of generations with separate haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte phases.
2. Details are provided on the structure and reproduction of major plant groups including bryophytes (liverworts, hornworts, and mosses). Liverworts and mosses are described as having both haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte generations.
3. Diagrams illustrate the life cycles and reproductive structures of bryophytes and how they differ from vascular land plants in their alternation of generations and lack
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Roots
1. 3/21/2010
Functions
• absorption of
water and
minerals
• transport of
water and
minerals
ROOTS • anchorage of the
h f h
plant to the soil
• holds soil
particles in place
• storage of food
Types of root systems Origin of ROOTS
1. taproot/ primary root‐ from the radicle
• e.g. gymnosperms and dicots,
• Ultimate lateral branches
Origin of ROOTS
10 state of growth
2. lateral roots/branch roots –
absorption of water
from the pericycle
feeder roots‐‐remain short
• secondary root – from
pericycle of and fragile and short‐lived
main/tap/primary root
/ /
• tertiary root‐ from pericycle 3. adventitious roots‐ roots that
of secondary root arise from unusual places
• quaternary root‐ from
pericycle of tertiary root
1
2. 3/21/2010
Primary State PRIMARY STATE
• Root cap
1. ROOT CAP
• Epidermis
• Protects the root meristem
• Exodermis
• assists the root in the
• Cortex penetration of soil during its
• Endodermis growth
• Pericycle • With mucilage
• Vascular • Consists of living parenchyma
Cylinder cells containing starch and
are believed to be involved in
gravity perception
PRIMARY STATE Velamen
2. EPIDERMIS • multiseriate (in Orchids);
• closely packed elongated cells with thin walls,
uncutinized • during dry weather, the cells are filled with air;
• If it persists, may become cutinized or suberized, during rain, they become filled with water;
or lignified
or lignified • f
functions: mechanical protection and
i h i l i d
• typically uniseriate prevention of excessive loss of water from the
• with root hairs which are typically short‐lived cortex
3. Cortex
• Degree of differentiation is
related to the longevity of
the cortex
• With schizogenous
intercellular spaces
a. Exodermis
• Differentiated as a
protective tissue
• May have casparian strip
suberin lamella cellulose
layers and be lignified
2
3. 3/21/2010
b. Endodermis
• Universally present in roots
• With casparian strip
• Casparian strip is part of the primary wall;
composed of lignin or suberin or both;
• In the 2nd stage • In the third stage,
suberin lamella covers the entire wall on the a thick cellulose layer is
inside of the cell deposited over the
casparian strip is separated from the suberin lamella
cytoplasm
• The thick wall+ original
wall (with casparian
strip)
may become lignified
4. Pericycle
• Consists of thin‐walled parenchyma
• Concerned with meristematic activities
• Origin of lateral roots and phellogen
• Origin of part of the vascular cambium
• The wall modifications
The wall modifications
appear first on the face of the phloem
strand and then spread toward the xylem
• Passage cells
opposite the xylem allow a limited transfer of
material between the cortex and the vascular
cylinder
3
4. 3/21/2010
• In monocots may undergo sclerification in Vascular System
older roots • Typically has an exarch
• In gymnosperms typically multiseriate xylem
• Typically differentiation of
5. Vascular cylinder—(+assoc. parenchyma) phloem is centripetal
• More clearly delimited from cortex than the
More clearly delimited from cortex than the (p
(protophloem pole near
p p
shoot: the periphery of pericycle)
a. Not interrupted by leaf gaps
b. This tissue is surrounded by the pericycle Pith consists of parenchyma,
c. Endodermis surrounds the pericycle may become sclerified
Development Roots without 20 growth
MONOCOTS– completion of 10 growth
• Sclerification of parenchyma cells associated
with the vascular elements
• Development of thick 20 walls in the
endodermis
d d i
• Differentiation of exodermis
• Cortex is retained and no periderm develops
• The protective tissues are the epidermis and
the exodermis(replaces epidermis if former is
destroyed)
Roots with 20 growth
• Vascular cambium develops partly between 10
xylem and 10 phloem
• Partly, vascular cambium develops from the
y, p
pericycle
• Pericycle divides periclinally and the
outermost gives rise to the phellogen
4
5. 3/21/2010
Protective tissue: Development of lateral roots
• Persisting thick‐walled epidermis (Ranunculus) • In gymnosperms and angiosperms, originate
• Exodermis (Compositae) from the pericycle
• Dead and collapsed but persisting cortex • Endodermis may participate in the initial
(Linaria, Polygonum) growth of the branch root
• Subdivided and suberized endodermis
Subdivided and suberized endodermis • The derivatives of the endodermis combined
The derivatives of the endodermis combined
(Gentiana) with those of the cortex may form a rootcap‐
• Polyderm (Potentilla) like structure called pocket
• Periderm of deep seated origin (Saxifragaceae)
• In lower vascular plants
Development of Adventitious roots
the branch roots originate from the
endodermis
• Most of them arise endogenously
• If parent plant has more than 2 xylem poles,
• Plants with adventitious roots:
lateral roots emerge opposite the xylem or
p
phloem lower vascular – main root system
• if diarch, monocots
in between X and P dicots –propagated by means of rhizomes
or runners; water plants
• Most of them arise endogenously
• In young stems, adventitious roots derived
from interfascicular parenchyma, phloem, in
perivascular position
position
• In older stems from the vascular ray;
sometimes from the cambial zone
• parenchyma vascular elements
5
6. 3/21/2010
Little water enters the rootcap and the apical meristem 10 roots or roots with limited 20 growth
cortex
Maximum rates of absorption of water
10xylem is mature and endodermis has casparian with 20 growth
strip
parenchymatic and some sclerenchymatic cells of X
and P
Maximum accumulation of salts
close to the apical meristem
The hypocotyls and base of the taproot is fleshy
Root hairs (Daucus, Beta)
Formation of many branches in the branched type of
root system
Many adventitious roots in fibrous root system
(penetrate the soil less deeply but binds the soil more
( t t th il l d l b t bi d th il
tightly)
Root hairs play a part in binding the soil
The leaf primordia arise directly from the apical
meristem of the shoot and the branches more or less
directly; and both are exogenous
Apical meristem of the root is
subterminal because it is covered
by the root cap
Apical meristem of the shoot is
terminal
i l
The epidermis of the root has
more varied ontogenetic origin
than that of the shoot
(dermatogen;
dermatocalyptrogen; protoderm)
6
7. 3/21/2010
The lateral roots arise independently of the apical Vascular system of the shoot differentiates largely or
meristem and are endogenous entirely in relation to the leaves
The vascular system of the root develops as an axial
structure independent of the lateral organs
Leaf gaps and pith are characteristic of the vascular The relation between the regions of the primary body
system of stems except in certain lower vascular plants and the apical initials is often more precise in the root
than in the shoot;
There are no leaf gaps in the root and frequently no
pith
The 10 vascular tissues of the shoot more or less SHOOT 10 xylem differentiation is centrifugal in the
discrete bundles (units combining xylem and phloem) shoot (endarch xylem)
while in the ROOT centripetal in the root (exarch xylem)
Root the xylem alternates with the phloem lower vascular the 10 xylem is exarch in both root
and stem,
in ferns commonly mesarch in the stem
7
8. 3/21/2010
The boundaries between the tissue systems are quite
precise in the root.
Endodermis and pericycle are universally present in
roots
The root has shorter elongation region than the shoot
and frequently develops no extensible types of
protoxylem elements (with annular and helical 20
t l l t ( ith l d h li l
walls)
Roots have a lower percentage of the area of the bark
occupied by fibers
Roots have smaller number of fibers in the xylem
Differences are quantitative rather than qualitative
The 20 vascular tissues of the root higher proportion
of living to non living cells
Roots have higher bark to wood ratio
Larger vessels of more uniform size although
sometimes fewer in number
A poor differentiation of growth increments
8
9. 3/21/2010
First periderm arises in the pericycle while in the stem A larger ratio of area of living cells to area of nonliving
in the peripheral layers of the axis cells in both the phloem and the xylem
More starch and less tannic substances
region of the plant axis where some features are
intermediate or transitional between those of the
shoot and the root
9