RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 1997

THEME PAPER ON
RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT

ISSUES & OPTIONS
WATER RESOURCES DAY

1997

NOlAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

FOREWORD

The efficient utilisation of water reosources calls for a holistic approach to
planning, development and management within the precinct of natural hydrological
boundaries. Our general claim of abundant water resources based upon observed annual
flows and about rapid developments in plan period wourd appear lopsided if not placed in
proper perspective highlighting the complexitiies and constraints associated with the
development initiatives.
In view of several competing and even conflicting demands for water and
also due to temporal and spatial variations in its availability, the project by project
development is now losing relevance. It may appear odd but it is true that one.part of the
river basin is water surplus while another is drought prone. The problem of floods in monsoon
period and chronic shortage in non-monsoon months also sounds incougruous within the
same river basin. The water resources development should not only aim at beneficial use of
water but also at achieving it in 0 manner campatible witbsocial, ec.onomic and
environmental interests. It is now well recognised, world-wide, that on'ly a holistic approach
to development with 'Basin' as an unit can address all water-related issues successfully.
'Integrated river basin' development is being propogated all over the world
but with partial success. The International Network of Basin Organisations (INBO) has been
set up in May, 1994 in France with an objective to exchange experiences between different
basin organisations and promote integrated management of water resources.
Union and the state GovernmeRts look into various aspects of water planning
and development. Nevertheless, maintaining the quality and availability of this vital resource
is the responsibility of the entire nation. The people at large have to be inspired to conserve
the water and save it from pollution. The observance of Water Resources Day throughout the
country for creating awareness among water users has now become an annual feature since
1987. Deliberations are held on a chosen theme and the topic for this year is "River Basin
management -Issues & Options". The United Nations have also been organising "World Day
for Water" and the theme selected by them for this year is "Water Resources Assessment".
In Indian context, the water resources assessment has been carried out fro ·,) time to time
separately for each basin and the information base thus created is widely used for decision
making. Both the themes are relevant to and complement each other.
Thistheme paper prepared by a select group of experts is expected to carry
t he message of 'basin approach' to all sections of the society across the country. The Indian
Water Resources Society (IWRS) wishes to acknowledge the contribution of the panel of
Authors & Reviewers in the preparation of theme paper and compliment them for their
va'luable efforts.
Authors Reviewers
Z. Hasan, Vice President, IWRS R. Rangachari, Member (Retd.), ewe
& Member (WP&P), ewe A.D. Mohile, Director General, NWDA
K.S. Rana, eE(BPMO) , ewe
.R.S. Pathak, Joint Secretary, IWRS
& Jt. eommissioner(PP), MOWR
e.K. Agarwal, Director(BP), ewe
A.K. Mohinta, Dy. Director(BP), ewe
(M.S. Reddy)
New Delhi President
Dated the March 21, 1997 Indian Wafer Resources Society

CONTENTS
1.0 Preamble 1

2.0 Basin Concept 2

2.1 World Scenario 2

2.2 Shared Basins 4

2.3 Indian Perceptions 5

3.0 Water Resources Quantitative Assessment 7

3.1 Basinwise Water Resources of India 7

3.2 Study by Irrigation Commission (1901-03) 7

3.3 Shldy of Dr. A.N. Khosla 7

3.4 Study by CW & PC during 1954-66. 7

3.5 Subsequent Assessments 10

3.6 . Latest Assessment 10

113.6.1 . Limitations
3.7 Growing W:l.ter Scarcity in River Basins 11

4.0 Water Quality Improvement Measures 14

.4.1 Quality Measurement & Monitoring 14

4.2 Quality Classification 14

4.3 Ganga Action Plan-Phase I 14

4.4 Water Quality Profile 16

4.5 Ganga Action Plan-Phase II 16

4.5.1 Yamuna Component 16

4.5.2 Gomti Action Plan 18

4.6 National River Action Plan 18

4.6.1 Sabarmati River Action Plan 19

4.6.2 Sutlej River Action Plan 19

4.6.3 Tapi River Action Plan 19

4.6.4 Khan-Kshipra River Action Plan 19

4.6.5 Betwa River Action Plan 19

4.6.6 Narmada River Action Plan 20

4.6.7 Wainganga River Action Plan 20

4.6.8 Krishna River Action Plan 20

4.6.9 Chambal River Action Plan 20

4.6.10 Cauvery River Action Plan 20

4.6.11 Subemarekha River Action Plan 20

5.0 Water Resources Development 21

5.1 Indus Basin 21

5.2 Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna System 23

5.2.1 Ganga Basin 23

5.2.2 Brahmaputra Basin 25

5.2.3 Barak Basin 28

5.3 Godavari Basin 28

5.4 Krishna Basin 29

5.5 Cauvery Basin 31

5.6 Pennar Basin 31

5.7 Mahanadi Basin 32

5.8 Brahmani-Baitarni Basin 33

5.9 Sabarmati Basin 34

5.10 Mahi Basin 34

5.11 Narmada Basin 35

5.12 Tapi Basin 35

5.13 Subernrekha Basin 36

5.14 West Flowing rivers from Tapi to TCldri & 36

West Flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari

5.15 East Flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar 37

5.16 East Flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari 38

5.17 West Flowing rivers of Kutch & Saurashtra incl. Luni 39

6.0 Basin Approach Initiatives in Inadia 43

6.1 Various models - Their statutory and mandatory roles 43

6.1.1 .Damodar Valley Corporation 43

6.1.2 Krishna-Godavari Commission 43

6.1.3 Sone River Commission 45

6.1.4 Ganga Flood Control Board & 46

Ganga Flood Control Commission

6.1.5 Brahmaputra Board 47

6.1.6 Narmada Control Authority 47

6.1.7 Bhakra Seas Management Board 48

6.1.8 Upper Yamuna River Board 48

6.1.9 Other Organisations 49

7.0 Basin Development and Management Issnes 50

7.1 Administra tive Arrangement 50

7.1.1 Setting up of River Basin Organisations 50

7.1.2 Institntional Co-ordination 52

7.2 Technical Framework 53

7.2.1 Data Collection and dissemination 53

7.2.2 Water Balance and Water Allocation 54

7.2.3 Creation of Storages 54

7.2.4 Inter-basin Transfer 55

7.2.5 Water Conservation and efficient use of water 57

7.2.6 Linkage between Water and Land Use Management 57

7.2.7 Watershed Management 57

7.3 .Financial Aspects 57

7.3.1 Resource Generation 57

7.3.2 Cost Recovery and Pricing of Water 58

7.4 Legal Issues 59

7.4.1 Constitutional Provisions 59

7.4.2 Inter-State Water Disputes 60

7.4.3 Options for Changes in Legal Set-up 61

7.4.4 Suggested Actions 61

7.4.5 Constraints and Limitations 63

7.5 People's participation 63

7.5.1 The Need and Process 63

7.5.2 Involvement Levels 64

Indiall Water Resources Society
1. PREAMBLE
1.1 Water is key element in the socio-economic development of a country. With the
total clmount of available water remaining more or less constant and ever increasing demand due
to the growth of population, agriculture and industries, it is now becoming a scarce resource. Lest
this scarcity hamper the socio-economic progress of the country, it is very important to improve
Ithe efficiency of planning, development and management of water. It is noteworthy that a water
'I resources plan consistent with the overall economic, social and environmental policies of the
IIcountry, is an important element contributing to the country's development objectives.
I
1.2 The United 1 ations Water Conference held in Mar-del Plata, Argentina in 1977
recommended the formulation of mi.lster plan for countries and river basins to provide a long
term perspective for planning, including resource conserv~HoY us.ing techniques like system
, analysis and mathematical mode1ino; as planning tOQls, whereve·r a,pp i able.. The Mal--del Plata
IAction Plan also recommended that ptcmning s.h.ould! be (onsidlc:redl iil'S a continuous. activity and!
Ithat long-tenn plans should be revised and completed periodically
I 1.3 The International Conference on Ni<malg;ing WlaEer ]esomces; fOIl' hllrge G1tiies;;mdi
ITowns held in Beijing on18-21 MaKh, 1996also recnmmendled. TInait trlh!eolhii:1lSiiic 1Ll!l1liitt ofW'alUte'lf I1€S<D,i.HitC€$
i
)
I .
management is the rive:r basin. Effedi'l'e' iimp~e-mentralt:iiolill of aJlil! iiJ!llitegn<ll1i:€di wat~j;- FeS(QJU1Il1Ces:
management plan would ben efit from the estrCllbtisnmelfCE off iiJJ JPllublic O~- semii-pllulb,Eii<.e clllll,ttml1:<D'illitiD1LUS, I
basin organilsation. I
1A In OIlder to enSlU:e the guality ofWe ~m eiinrfu and 51l11S;[adilillaJ!b>]e e'C()ilill<Dmi([ dievel!<Djp11l:TIP'lllltt I
of our societies, the problems reiating tonahmlli diisaster . 01 f,]oOOis., dlmughts, Iillle-:cds;O'f.ltFlrlb'<TJr1, annJc1 I'.
rural population, development of irrigation, industries, energ.y S'llpp1ies and POJiUftii(Ji'l1 c<!w'!ttm:t cain
m, longer be addr< ssed sector by sector, nor (<to ~hey be tadled in isolation, They G1U ffOlf em
integra ted management approach at the level of re~pe'Ctive hydrologic units.
L5 For formulating plan~ for water resources development in a rational way within a
defined area or region and with due regard to' inter-regional needs, basin planning should form
I tI1I.' basis within a hydrologic ~ysteJjL A river basin has a defined watershed boundary and within
it there is an il1tgr-reli1tion~hip between the surface water, ground water and the supporting naturC1l
Cl1vironment. TherefofQj it should be treated with r spect as a hydrological, geomorphological
and ecological contil1Uum, The basin pli:111S for allocation of available water and land resources
and for verifying the compatibility of long-term development programmes and projects on
sU1'ltail1<1ble b~~isl should become the main decision making tool to ensure continuing welfare of
l11ankind,
1.6 National Water Policy adopted by Govt. of India in 1987 have also addH~ssed that

plcil1t1ing for water resources should be done considering basin or sub-basin as a hydrologiC unit.

The Policy has recommended setting up multidisci plinary units in each state for the purpose not

only to meet irrigation needs but to harmonise various other uses of water.

Indian Water Resources Society
2. BASIN CONCEPT
2.1 World Scenario
The term 'basin planning' is widely used but less frequently employed as development
tended to proceed on a project to project basis. Some attempts have however been made by several
countries to set up River Basin Organisations for planning and management of river basin resources.
The earliest example can be cited as the establishment of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in
1934 in the United States. TVA was initially evolved, to perform not only a specified number of
engineering tasks but also to deal with large social issues, some of which involved substantial
modifications of the then existing institutional structure of the country.
2.1.1 In the early years of the TVA, a wide range of regional planning activities were
initiated and carried out which included afforestation, extension programmes for better land use
and soil management and a variety of community development programmes. These activities
were soon relegated to the periphery and the Authority functioned more like a 'power production
and flood control corporation'. In the United States, the idea of river basin planning and
management gradually took shape into an operational concept through a progressive synthesization
of three inter-related but separately evolved concepts of multipurpose projects, unity of drainage
basin and the acceptance of the Government's intervention in the promotion of social welfare.
Over the years, despite the criticism against the working of TVA, the concept of river basin planning
and management has survived in the USA.
2.1.2 In United Kingdom, till 1973 nearly 1600 local undertakings were responsible for
providing water services. There were inevitable working difficulties and conflicts of interests. In
1973, under the water act based on the principle that a single authority should plan J.nd control all
uses of water in each river basin, nine English Regional Water Authorities assumed responsibility
for water supply, sewerage and sewage disposal, as well as for water resources planning, pollution
control, fisheries, flood protection, navigation, water recreation and environmental conservation.
Over the years, it has been found that these water authorities worked well in practice. The water
authorities' ability to operate on the basis of integrated river basin management and to plan and
develop water resources regionally has enabled them to improve their services and to keep pace
with the rising demand. This set up has been recognised as being a good and cost effective model
for other countries to follow. Among the ten water authorities in u.K., the Thames Water Authority
is a classic example of integrated river basin management. The basin supports 3500 abstractions
1200 for agriculture, 500 for domestic water supplies and 1800 for industrial and other uses. The
river receives industrial effluents at 6500 locations and effluents from sewage treatment works at
450 locations. Besides, the river is used for fishing and boating. The river flows are regulated and
managed to ensure that discharges do not pollute water supplies and abstractions rio not effect
the level of the river to the extent that it puts at risk natural life or the enjoyment of those who use
, the river for recreation.
2.1.3 Murrey River Commission of Australia has been managing the waters of one of the
very dry basins in the world successfully and has contributed considerably to the economic
development of that continent.
2

2.1.4 In France, the river basin management is primarily based on water laws of 1964
and 1992. The law of 1964 divided the France into six river basins, created River Basin Committees
and Water Agencies and a system of financial management based on the principle of 'Polluter
Pays' for water quality deterioration and 'User Pays' for the water he is using. The 1992 law
recognises water as a single unitary resource irrespective of its physical and geographical
distinctions. The management of water is done in the framework of a river basin.
The French system basically consists of setting up a River Basin Committee (comprising
about 100 members) with roughly one-third of the members from elected representatives, one
third of the members representing the different ·water users identified and the remaining one
. third socio-economic professionals and administrators. The River Basin Committee is a small
Parliament for water at basin level; it is also the policy making body for each river basin, decides
broadly on the development plans to be taken up and gives an agreement on the level of financial
charges collected by the River Basin Agency which is the executive limb of the River Basin
Committee. After being voted by the River Basin Committee, the level of the financial charges
must be ratified by the Central Government. The River Basin Agency's Board of Directors conSisting
of 26 members (one-third elected representatives, one-third water users' representatives and one
third representatives from the various institutes involved in water resources management). The
Chairman of the Board of Directors is nominated by the Central Government. The River Basin
Agency is financially self sustaining.
French systemis, thus basically founded on the following features:
(i) Water user pays for the water he is using and polluter pays for the '-'vater quality
deterioration he is causing. The system is structured in such a way that it takes
into account the capacity to pay for each category of users (domestic, industrial
and farmers for irrigation).
(ii) The water resources development and management is financially self sustaining.
The water charges are proposed by the Agency's Board of Directors and later on
agreed upon by the River Basin Committee. Since elected representatives are also
members of the River Basin Committee, there is general consensus on the water
charges and recovery of water charges is very satisfactory.
iii) More than 90 per cent of the money collected is afterwards redistributed under the
form of financial assistance (loans and grants) either for pollution control actions
or for the development of water resources and their sustainability.
_ French system is more independent and transparent in nature
= In Algeria, the decree of the Government Council of March, 1996 defined the river
-=.: down the statutes of public management institutions as well as those related to
. _~ Basin Committees and the National Water COLmcil.
~ _~e,'ico, the authorities from the Federal Government, the Federal District and
i n co-ordination agreement to set up a Basin Valley for Mexico Valley.- =-. _
3

ITldian Water Resources Society
2.1.7 In Asian region, the Mekong river covering the whole of the Lao PDR and
Kampuchea, one third of Thailand and two-fifth of Vietnam, is under a Mekong Committee
established by the ESCAFE now ESCAP (Economic & Social Commission for Asia and Pacific] in
1957 wi th secretariat office at Bangkok which co-ordinates the work of collection of basic data and
river basin planning.
• In China, the 1988 water law requires that basin plans should serve as the basis for water
development, utilisation and prevention of damage. There are seven Commissions covering
the six major riveT basins and one lake basin. They are the central agencies having planning
and regulatory functions under the Ministry of Wa ter. The Yellow river conservancy
Cornmission has additional responsibility of flood manClgement in lower Yellow river and
the operation of all reservoirs. It bas considerable financial strength and autonomy as a
consequence of wa ter and power receipts from the operation of projects. However, major
basins are not managed by a single agency.
• Indonesia has also created several basin dgencies with powers which include planning,
regulation and management of major facilities.
• The Mahaweli Authority in Sri Lanka has been a powerful body for both development
and m.anagement of major storage and irrigation projects. It also provides secretariat for
plClnning and other water management activities.
• In Malaysia, area based authorities have been created for two irriga tion projects which
essentially act as basin co-ordination authorities.
• The Philippines has also accepted the concept of planned development of water resources
on the basis of basins. The 36 basin plans prepared in the country provide the basis for all
water licensing and project clearance.
• In Korea, though no ltnified basin organisation has been established, all the five main
catchn"lents are managed as total water supply/ demand operations and allocations are met
meticulously. There is no comprehensive legislation in the country.
2.2 Shared Basins
2.2.1 Nearly 4n~) of the area of world falb within shared rivers and lake basins. Nearly
60t~,~) of Africa and South America are within shared basins. There are 44 countries in the ',,'orld
where atleast 80'}'0 of the total areas lie within international basins,
2.2.2 An analysis shows that there are 214 river and lake basins that are shared by two or
more countries. Of these, 156 basins arc shared by two countries, There arc nine basins which are
shared by six or more countries. Any development on an international river is subject to
international law. In view of the conflicting interests of the countries, it is very difficult to develop
4

Indion Water Resources Societv
and manage international river basins in an efficient manner. Generally, the issues amongst the
countries are politically sensitive. As such, the riparian countries are not Elble to formulElte rights
Elgrcements. The impending conflicts resulting from lack of agreements influences basic policy
decisions and development strategies. TIle unilClteral exploitation of shared WElter resources by
one country, without the prior agreement of the other co-basin countries could lead to serious
conflicts and regional instability.
2.3 Indian Perceptions
I 2.3.1 India is a union of States and most of India's river basins are inter-State in nElture.
i lndia's Constitution provides power to the States to develop the water resources within their
boundaries subject to P<1r1iament empowering Union Government to regulate <1nd develop inter
State rivers to the extent to which such reg Ltlation ilnd development is declared by the Parliament
by law to be expedient in the public interest. However, in practice, the States have been allmved
to deal with the waters of the inter-State rivers. CertElin amount of Central control is provided
indirectly through a process of techno-economic appraisal of major and medium irrigation and
multi-purpose water resources projects by Central Water Commission, environmental clemanceI
by Ministry of Environment & Forests, investment cle<1rance by the Planning Commission and
through the Centre's role in obtaining assistElnce from external agencies for the projects.
2.3.2 For the planned development of ri'er basins as a whole, the River Boards Act was
passed by the Parliament in 1956 for prepa ration of water resources development schemes and for
advising the States on the regulation Clnd other aspects. The Act which provided formation of
river bomds with the consent of States has never been operated upon due to various reasons.
2.3.3 As most of our rivers are inter-state, there is a competition for river water not only
bet"veen the various Llses within a StElte but also between riparian States. The Irrigation
I Comn,ission, 1972 recommended thc1t the river basi.n plans must be prepared if the WElter resources
of the country Clre to be developed to the best advantage and this could be done only by an
II organis2ltion vested with statutory a.uthority.. The ~o~mission r.ecommended for setting up of a
INatlOni11 Water Resources Councd Clnd Rlver l>aslll Commlsslons to ensure the plClnned
Idevelopment of water resources.
' 2.3.4 In initial stClges of water resources development, large projects in a number of riverI
v<111cys 'were taken up by the States to boost up agricultural production to achieve self sufficiency
in food. The easier sites for putting up storage structure have already been exploited by many
states. The future major water resources projects have to be taken up at rather difficult locations.
The neVi projects Me more likely to be inter-State in nature. Also, as the demand on available
water resources increases with developmental activities, interactions between projects come into
play and multi-State interests may have to be taken care of. All these factors point to the necessity
of moving beyond the limited interests of i1 State alone in dealing with Wi:1ter resources and under
Ii. the need for development and management on the river basin level
L_~.3.5 The National Water Policy adopted in 1987, also recommends
5
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Indiall Water Resources Societ)!
"Resource planning in the case of water has to be done for a hydrological unit such as a
drainage basin as a whole, or for a sub-basin. All individual developmental project? and proposals
should be formulated by the States and considered within the framework of such a overall plan
for a basin or sub-basin, so that the best possible combination of options can be made."
"Appropriate organisations should be established for the planned development and
management of a river basin as a whole. Special multi-disciplinary uni ts should be set up in each
state to prepare comprehensive plans taking into account not only the needs of irrigation but also
harmonising various other water uses, so that the available water resources are determined and
put to optimum use having regard to existing agreements or awards of Tribunals under the relevant
laws."
"Water should be made available to water short areas by transfer from other areas including
transfers from one river basin to another, based on d national perspective, after taking into account
the requirements of the areas/basins."
2.3.6 With the constitutional provision which gives power to the States to develop the
water resources within their territorial jurisdiction, legal and administrative hurdles have to be
overcome to achieve an integrated basin level approach to planning, development and management
of the water resources. The issue has been under i1(tive consideration for a number of years to
define the form and the role of the basin level organisations. The Parliamentary Consultative
Committee of Ministry of Water Resources came out with a report on river basin organisation
(RBO) in 1988 which contained recommendations on the functions and powers, organisational set
up and other details of RBOs. Subsequently, the National Water Board (NWB) was set up to
operationalise the National Water Policy recommendations and to discuss the issues rela ted to the
development of water resources of the country and the progress achieved in implementing the
NWP recommendations. The NWB set up a Sub-Committee in 1992 to prepare a policy paper on
setting up of RBOs. The Sub-Committee came out with a policy paper in April 1992 giving
recommendations on the functions and powers of RBOs and other details. Apart from enumerating
functions and powers of the proposed RBOs, the main recommendations of the Sub-Committee
are as under:
i) The basic technical functions of RBOs will be collection of data and development of basin
level information system, planning, co-ordination, monitoring and implementation Of inter
state projects;
ii) The RBOs need not be set up under an Act of Parliament but through Executive Order;
iii) The State Governments may immediately initiate action for setting up of multi-disciplinary
units in their respective States for preparation of cornprehensive plans for water resources
development; and
IV) Establishing Brahmaputra Valley Authority by reconstituting existing Brahmaputra Board
and establishing Krishna Co-ordination Committee may be taken up immedi.ately.
Reconstitution of Narmada Control Authority (NCA) into Narmada Valley Authority may
have to be referred to the Ministry of Law before taking a final decision.
6

Indian Water Resources Societv
3. WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
3.1 Basinwise Water Resources of India
Proper assessment of the country's water potential is an essential pre-requisite for the efficient
planning and development of the resources. River basin being the basic hydrologic unit for planning
and development of water resources, it follows that assessment of water resources has necessarily
to be basin-wise.
The entire country has been divided into twenty river basins comprising twelve major
basins: (1) Indus, (2) Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna (3) Godavari, (4) Krishna, (5) Cauvery, (6)
Mahanadi, (7) Pennar, (8) Brahmani-Baitarani, (9) Sabarmati, (10) Mahi, (11) Narmada and (12)
Tapi. Each of these basins have a drainage area exceeding 20000 sq.km. The eight composite river
basins combining suitably together all the other remaining medium and small river systems for
the purpose of planning and development are: (1) Subernarekha - combining Subernarekha and
other small rivers between Subernarekha and Baitarani, (2) East flowing rivers between Mahanadi
and Pennar; (3) East flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari;(4) Area of Inland Drainage
in Rajasthan Desert; (5) West flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni; (6) West
flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri; (7) West flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari and (8)
Minor rivers draining into Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh. A map of India showing these
twenty river basins is given in Fig. 3.1. Basinwise population and land use statistics are given in
Table 3.1. Assessment of water resources of the country attempted from time to time is discussed
below based upon old studies and the latest attempts.
3.2 Study by Irrigation Commission (1901-03)
The first ever attempt to assess the average annual flow of all the river systems in India
was made by the Irrigation Commission of 1901-03. In the absence of data on river flows, the
Commission resorted to estimation of river flows by adopting coefficients of runoff.
According to this estimate, the average annual flow of all river systems cf India (excluding
Assam) was 1443.2 billion cubic metre (BCM).
3.3 Study by Dr. A.N. Khosla
After setting up of Central Water &PowerCumrnission(CW&PC) in 1945-46, Dr. AN. Khosla, ,
the then Chairman of CW&PC developed an empirical relationship describing nmoff as a function of
rainfall and temperature (temperature representing Joss on account of evaporation and transpiration)
based on his studies of the flows of Sutlej, Mahanadi and other river systems in 1949. While applying
these relationships to the entire country, Dr. Khosla divided the country into just 'six regions viz., (i)
Rivers falling into Arabian Sea excluding Indus, (ii) Indus Basin within India, (iii) Rivers falling into
Bay of Bengal other than Ganga-Brahmaputra system, (iv) Ganga, (v) Brahmaputra and (vi) Rajputana.
According to the study, the total annual flow of all the systems was assessed as 1673 BCM.
3.4 Study by CW&PC during 1954-66
The CW&PC again worked out the surface water resources of different basins during the
period from 1954 to 1966. This study was mostly based on statistical analysis of the flow data
wherever available and. rainfall-runoff relat.ionships wherever data were meagre. The country
was divided into 23 sub-basins/basins. Ganga was divided into as many as ten sub-systems.
I Other major peninsular river basins like Narmada, Tapi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Cauvery
Ii were considered separately. Other river systems were combined together suitably into a few
composite systems. According to these studies, the water resources of various basins were worked
out as 1881 BCM.
7

lndiall Water Resources Societ....'
,I

INDIA
RIVER BASINS
BAY
o
BE GAL
11'11 3. River 81l~l n(l of {ndlu
It II

8

Table 3.1. Basinwise Population and Land Use Statistics
. -
S. I' River Basin Estimated Catchment Net Sown Net Irrigated
No. Population Area Area Area
1991 (million) (M.ha) I (M.ha) M.ha)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Indus (up to border) 41.9 32.13 9.59 5.80
2 Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna 392.1 109.76 53.30 24.19
2(a) Ganga 356.8 86.15 44.05 23.41
I
2(b) Brahmaputra 29.1 19.44 8.14 0.63
2(c) Barak 6.2 4.17 1.11 0.15
3 Godavari 54.0 31.28 14.39 2.73
I
4 Krishna GO.8 25.89 13.19 3.33
5 Cauvery 29.3 8.12 I 4.07 1.48
6 Subernrckha 9.5 2.92 1.19 0.21
I
7 I3rahmani-Baitarni 9.8 5.18 1.94 0.49
8 Mahanadi 26.6 14.16 5.98 2.02
I
9 Pennar 9.7 5.52 2.33 0.49
10 Mahi 10.5 3.48 1.88 0.40
-
I
Jl Sabarmati 10.6 2.17 1.56 0.56
12 Narmada 14.7 9.88 4.68 1.02

13 Tapi 14.8 6.51 3.75 0.38
14 West Flowing rivers from Tapi 25.8 5.59 2.06 0.31
to Tadri I I
I I
15 West Flowing rivers from Tadri 32.6 5.62 2.62 0.51
I to kanyakumari I
I
16 E,)st FlOWing rivers between 23.6 8.66 3.51 1.57I
I I
Mahanadi and Godavari
17 East of Flowing rivers between 45.0 10m 4.16 2.01
Pennar and Kanyakumari
l8 West Flowing rivers of Kutch 22.1 32.19 7.81 1.71.
and saurashtra inc!. Luni
19 Area of Inland Drainage in 7.1 6.00 4.20 110
Rajasthan
1
20 Minor rivers draining into 2.1 3.63 0.20 0.06
l3angladesh and Myanmar
II.
I!
I
I
I
_I
9

Indian Wofn R(,,'()U I"C(,S SOC ieI'
I -~~·'::"=~-'::"--···=======================Il
I 3.5 Subsequent Assessments
I
Some studies were done from time to time in respect of a few basins for specific purposes.
fur inst,mce, in the case of Godavcwi basin, Krishna-Godavari Commission estimated in 1962 the
averc,ge annual runoff in Godavari. Cauvery Fact Finding Committee estimated the runoff in
Clllvery in 1972. Similarly an estimate of Krishna flows was made in 1'973 for Krishna -Vater
Disputes Tribunal and of NmmadCl flows in 1979 for the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal. Central
W"ter Commission macie fresh studies in tespect of C few river bClsins such as MahanCldi,
SuberncHckhCl, Sabarmati and Tapi. Ganga Brahmaputra Water Studies (GBWS) Organisation
estimated the average flows in Ganga. In respect of Brahmaputra, the Brahmaputra SOMd carried
out assessment in 1987.
Subsequently, it was realized that the assessment made on the basis of observed nver
fim,vs needed some correction since over the years ground,vater extraction had increased to a
significant extent and the observed river flows were corrected for the add itional evc,potranspirCi tion
that vas occurring due to the use of ground water. The ClverClge annuClI wClter resources potentiClI
of the country were worked out by CentrCll Water Commission in 1988 CIS 1880 BCM, Clfter carrying
out the corrections on above lines. Estimates based on Khosla's fornmlCl, however, do not need
Clny correction since runoff is estimated from the observed rainfall and temperature and no observed I
ri.ver flows ,,'Ire used. . ..
Fig 3.2 BASIN-WiSE WATER RESOURCES POTENTIAL
~
3.6 Latest Assessment
After the setting up of a large number of gauge and dischmge observation stations in
almost <'Ill the inter-State river systems of the country, a reasonable Clmollnt of observed flow dClta
became aVClilable. In view of this, it was decided to carry out ressessment exercise based on the
(lvailablc datCl. A Committee heClded by Member (WP), CentrCll Water Commission was constituted
by the Ministry ofWClter Resources in JClnuary 1989 to prepare a report on the aVClilClbiJity of water
resources in the country. The results of the studies carried out by the Committee were published
in ewc PublicCltion no. 6/93 "Reassessment of Water Resources Potential in IndiCl, March 1993.
As per the asscssnI.ent made by the Committee, the Clverage annllal flow in the river systems
of [ndi" has been estimClted to be 1869 SCM. TClbie - 3.2 gives the b(lsin-wise water resources
Clvc,ilabiJity.
!l...
10

Indian Woter Resources Socicrr
Fig 3.3 Water Availability per Ha. of Culturable Area in River Basins
3.6.1 Limitations
Forwor:~::::~~t~::r~:,~r::~::~~;:::;:::I;:::I~::~:gu:::~:s~:~:;:::::hadtobemade II(1)
depending upon the type of data that could be obtained for the abstractions. Uniform
procedure could not naturally be adopted for all the river basins. Particularly for estimating
withdrawals for irrigation which is the major consumer of water varying assumptions
had to be made. In many cases while diversions from major and medium irrigation projects
were available, those from minor schemes were seldom available.
In most of the cases the year-wise withdrawal from ground water has been estimated
clpproximatdy assuming linear variation between the State-wise draft given by the
lrrigation Commission of 1972 for the year 1967-68 and by the Central Ground Water Board
for the year 1983-84, and interpolating for other years.
(3) The eVC1poration loss has been assumed as 20°/c) of the annual utilisation except for some of
the existing reservoirs where evaporation has been estimated by the project authorities.
(4) Return flows have been assumed to be 10'1" in the case of irrigation (major and medium)

,md 80% in the case of domestic and industrial supplies which are only approximate.

3.7 Growing Water Scarcity in River Basins
I Any situation of water availability less them 1000 cum per capita is considered by the

international agencies as scarcity conditions. Based upon this criterion and availability of 'Nater

as per the latest assessment already six bC1sins viz. Sabarmati, East flowing rivers between Pennar

and Kanyakumari, Pennar, West flowing rivers of Kutch & Saurashtra incl. Luni, Cauvery and

East flwoing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar fall into this category. Morc:' and more basins

will become water scarce by 2025 and 205() as the population increases. The position is indicated

. in Fig 3.4.
11

Table 3.2. Basinwise Water Resources Availability
S. River Basin Average Annual Availability
No. Water Per PerRa
Resource Capita of Cult.
Potential (Cubic Area
(BCM) metre) (Cubic metre
I
I
I
I1 2 3 4 5
1 Indus 73.31 1749 7600
2 Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna 1110.62 18061 52907
2(a) Ganga I 525.02 1471 8727
2(b) Brahmaputra & Barak 585.60 16589 44180
3 Godavari . 110.54 2048 5837
4 Krishna 78.12 1285 3847
5 Cauvery 21.36
I
728 3692
6 Subernrekha 12.37 1307 6533
7 Brahmani-Baitarni 28.48 2915 8903
8 Mahanadi 66.88 2513 8369
9 Pennar 6.32 651 1774
10 Mahi I 11.02 1052 4977
11 Sabarmati 3.81 360 2455
12 Narmada 45.64 3109 7727
13 Tapi 14.88 1007 3285
14 West Flowing rivers from Tapi 87.41 3383 27900
to Tadri
15 West Flowing rivers from Tadri 113.53 3480 36078
to Kanyakumari
16 East Flowing rivers between 22.52 953 5199
Mahanai and Godavari
17 East Flowing rivers between 16.46 366 2400
PennaI' and Kanyakumari
18 West Flowing rivers of Kutch 15.10 683 644
and Saurashtra incl. Luni -,
19 Area of Inland Drainage in Negl. - -
!
Rajasthan
I
I
20 Minor rivers draining into 31.00 14623 -
I Bangladesh and Myanmar I I
12

Indiun Water Resources Society
~II===================

FIG 3.4 GROWING WATER SCARCITY IN RIV"E.R BASINS
River Basin
Brahmaputra
Barak
West Flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari
West Flowing riversw from Tapi to Tadri
Narmada
Brahmani-Baitarni
Mahanadi
Godavari
Indus
Ganga
Subernrekha
Krishna
Mahi
Tapi
East Flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar
Cauvery
West Flowing rivers of Kutch & Saurashtra incl. Luni
Pemur
East Flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari
Sabarmati
1991 2050
ISURPLUS BASIN _ ISCARCE BASIN

13

Indian vYLlter Resources Societv
4. WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT MEASURES
4.1 Quality Measurement Monitoring
Water will continue to be a renewable and dependable resource as long as its utilisation is
well controlled to preserve the quality. The task ofbaLmcing the ratio of available and exploitable
water resources and maintClining their quality attains paramount importance in Indian context
where monsoonal hydrological cycle dominates the water availability causing floods at one time,
I drought at othel~ sometimes simultaneously in different basins and rendering water resources
grossly polluted during the period when demand for water is more. Apart from quantity, the
quality assessment of water is of equal significance without which the purpose of objective
allocation cannot be Clchieved. In order to determine the pollution load, the nature of pollution
and its possible source, the vulnerable river stretches are identified and three types of stations (i)
base stiltion, (ii) impact station and (iii) trend station are set up at points where water enters into
the selected reach from upstream basin, where effluent is discharged into the river and where it
flows out after dispersion of effluent in the river respectively. The Central Water Commission is
maintaining 319 such water quality monitoring sLtions all over the country covering main river
basins. Each station is provided with required facilities to collect samples at appropriate depth
along 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 river section. Analysis of samples so collected is undertaken in field
laboratories suitably equipped for the purpose and results are documented and disseminated to
the user agencies through Water Quality Year Books. Sampling frequency vary from once to thrice
a month. The groundwater quality is being monitored by Central Ground Water Board and State
Ground Water Organisations to determine the water quality status of aquifers. The source of
poilu tion, its type and extent are also ascertained through their network.
Centred Pollution Control Board (CPCB) is the nodal agency for organising water quality
monitoring through their own network as well as through the network set up by 9ate Pollution
Control Boards since 1977 under Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) and Monitoring
of Indian National Aquatic Resources (MINARS). As many as 51 and 402 stations have been set
• up by them under these programmes respectively. In addition, CPCB is also monitoring water
quality in the river Ganga and the Yamuna under a separate programme called Ganga Action
Plan.
4.2 Quality Classification
The ceiling levels set for speCific functions of Water Systems by CPCB as given in Table 4.1
specify the suitability for drinking, bathing, wildlife, irrigation and industrial purposes. In view
of varying interests and responsibilities, the water quality monitoring in various river systems is
being carried out by different agencies and it would be desirable to ensure uniformity in correct
practices and methodology for reliability of data used to present a total picture of river basin.
4.3 Ganga Action Plan (GAP) - Phase I
The CPCB carried out an exhaustive survey of Ganga to ascertain the level of degradation. I
The studies revealed that there is a degradation in the ecological health and biological wealth of i
the river neceSSitating an Action Plan to retrieve the pristine status of the river. Accordingly, the I
14

IIIdian Waler Resources Socit'I'
~-
I Table 4,1. Primary Water Quality Criteria for various Uses as laid down by CPCB
I
iII Designed Best usc
I
Drinking water source without

COIlI'enl ional treatlllenl but ancr

I di ,i nrn:lioll
OUldoor halhing (organised)
il

II

III
I
I Drink ing waleI' with conventional
I Ircatillcill fo llowed hy disink:clion
I

I

I Pmp,lg,llioll or wildlife FisheriesI
I!
I

I

Jrrigalion, industrial coolingI
I contrullccl walse water disposal
!
i
II1
' i
Class of
Watl'r
A
B
C
D
E
Critcl'ia
I. Total coliform organisms MPNI IOOml
shall be SO (max .)
2. pH helween 6..'1 lO X.S
:I. Dissolved Oxygen (min»=olllg/ l
4. BOD(lllax) 5 days <= (Max) 2.0() mg/ l
I , Tolal coli form organisms MPNI IOOml
shall bc SOO (max) II II2. Fecal Col i form MPNI I00 mgl I 10 he 1
25()() (max) ror Ganga Ac1ion Plan.
:I. pH belween 6..'1 to 9.5 I
4, Dissolved Oxygen (min) >= Sillg/l I5. BOD (max) 5 clays <= (MaX) :lmg/l
III. Total coliform organisms MPN/l()Oml
shall he SOOO (max)
I2. pH hetween 6 (0 9
I3. Dissolved Oxygcn (min) >= 41llg1 I
4. 1300 (max) 5 days <= 3IIIgl I
I. pH belwecil 6..'1 (0 8.5
2, Dissolved Oxygen (min) 4 Illg/l
:I. Free Anlillonia (as N) (max) 1,2 mgl I
I, pH helween () lO X,5
2, Electrical conductivity C!il 25"1
(Max)
22S() micro milos/c11l
" S(Jdium ahsorption ralio (max) 2(),) ,
4. Boron (max 2 mg/litrc,
I C<lngCi Action Plan W<lS launched III 1986 with the m<lin objectives of poilu tion <lbatement, to I
improVl~ the Welter qual ity by interception, diversion <lnd treatment of domestic sewage and prevent
tuxic (md industrial chemical w<lstes from identified grossly polluting units entering into the river, I!
"-1"
he othcJ objectIves of the GCinga ActIon Plan are as undel,
'I) Control of non-point pollution from agricultural runoff, human defecation, cattle
wallowing and throwing of unburnt and h<llf burnt bodies into the river.
b) Research and Development to conserve the biotic diversi ty of the ri ver, to augment
its productivity.
II
c) To act as trend setter for taking up similar Clction plans in other grossly pollutedd
stretches in other rivers,
The ullim,lte objective of the 'GAP IS to have an <lpproach of integrated river basin II
mCln<lgcment considering the VMioLls dynamic inter-action between abiotic <lnd biotic eco-system,
In order tll achieve the objectives of improving the wCiter qll<llity, 261 schemes covering 25
clClSS I towns of Uttar Pradesh (UP), Bihar <lmt West Bengal were t<lken up,
15

I
Indian Water Resources Societ'
It was targetted to intercept, divert and treat 873 million litres per day(MLD) of domestic
waste water out of 1340 MLD being generated from the 25 Class I towns in the States of UP, BihClr
and Nest Bengal. For controlling industrial pollution, 68 grossly polluted units discharging 260
MLD industrial waste water into the river were tClken up for close monitoring and forcing the
industries to set up effluent treatment plants.
l11e Ganga Action Plan besides aiming at improving the water quality of river Ganga is to serve as
a model to demonstrate the methodology for improving the water quality of other polluted rivers.
The Phase-T of GAP has been completed except for the left out works in the 25 class-I
towns and the works in other Class-II and Class-III towns. The impact of GAP works on water
l]uCl1ity at important stations as reported in Ministry of Environment & Forest publication "National
River Action Plan" is as given under:
S. Station Disso~ved Oxygen Biochemical Oxygen
No. (DO) Demand (BOD)
(>5 mg/l) « 1 mg/l)
1986 1993 1986 1993
1. I~ishik esh-H ardwar 8.1 .9.60 1.60 1.32
2. Kanpur 6.7 5.15 8.57 24.46
3. Allahabad 6.6 7.16 15.50 1.88
4. VmanClsi 5.9 7.58 10.60 0.95
5. Patna 8.1 8.00 2.20 1.50
6. Calculta 5.8 NA 1.50 NA
4.4 Water Quality Profile
Based upon the norms prescribed by CPCB, the w ater quality profile of 22 major and
medium river basins showing grossly polluted and less grossly polluted stretches have been
identified as given in Table 4.2
4.5 Ganga Action Plan Phase-II
Under Phase - II of the Ganga Action Plan, it was decided to take up pollution abatement
programme of the important tributaries of river G,mga like Yamuna (including Hindon) and Gomti,
which directly discharge into the river Ganga and are heavily polluted. The action plan was
launched in June 1993 to cover 6 towns of Haryana and 11 towns of Uttar Pradesh.
4.5.1 Yamuna Component
The river Yamuna is polluted in the reach Tajewala up to its confluence.with Chambal.
The bacterial contamination in the form of coliform is significantly high. It is proposed to intercept
770 mId of domestic se"vage and setting up of 29 sewage treatment plants besides other schemes
of construction of community toilets, electric and improved wood based crema toria, afforestation
and development of ghats.
16

Indian Water Resources Societv
I Table 4. 2 Grossly Polluted and Less Polluted Stretches of some major riversi
!
Basin River! Poll uted stretch Class Existing Desired I Critical
Tributary Class Parameter
1. Grossly Polluted Stretches
I
Indus Sutlej i) Downstream (D/S) Ludhiana to Harike Partly 0 C OO.BOO
Partly E
ii) O/SofNangal E C Ammon ia
Gal1<Ta..:> Yamuna i) Delhi to colfluence with Chambal Partly 0 C OO.BOO,
Partly E Coliforms
ii) In the city limits of Delhi, Agra and -do- B -do-
Mathura
Chmnbal O/S of Nagda & O/s Kota (approx 15 km Partly 0 C BOO,OO
both the places) Partly E
Oamodar D/S of Dhanbad to Haldia Partly 0 C ,BOD,
Partly E Toxic
Comti Lucknow to confluence with Ganga Partly D C DO, BOD.
I Partly E Coliforms
I Kali o/S of Modinagar to confluence with Partly 0 C -do-
I
Ganga Partly E
Khan i) In the city limits of Indore E B -do-I
I
ii) D/ s of Indore E 0 I -do-
Kshipra i) In the city limits'of Ujjain E B I-do
ii) Dis of Ujjain E D -do-
Hindon Saharanpur to confluence with Yamuna E D DO, BOD
Toxic
Godavari Godavari i) D/S of Nasik to Nanded Partly 0 C BOD
Partly E
ii) City limits of Nasik and Nanded -do- B BOD
Krishna Krishna Karad to Sangli Partly 0 C BOD
Partly E
I
Suberna- Suberna- Hathi Dam to Baharagora Partly 0 C ~O, BOD
rekha rekha Partly E Coliforms
Sabannclti S£ibarmclti i) Illunediate upstream of Ahmedabad city E B DO, BO~
llpto Sabarmati Ashram, Coliforms
ii) Sabarmati Asharm to Veutha
II. Less Grossly Polluted Stretches.
I
Ganga Betwa Between Vidisha and Mandideep and 0 C BOD, Total
Bhopal (MP) Coliforms.
Krishna Krishna i) Ohom Dam to Narso Babri (Mah) 0 C BOO &
ii) Tributary Streams Coliforms
iii) Upto Nagarjun Sagar Dam from that 0 C -do-
Dam to Upstream of RepeUa (A.P) ID
I
C -00
Bhadra Origina to downstream of KICCL of Bhadra ' D C Total
I Dam (Karnataka) Coliforms
Tunga Thirthahalli to confluence with Bhadra C B Toti'll
Coliforms
I I I I I
17

I

Indian WLlter Resources S()cietv
II. Less Grossly Polluted Stretches (Contd)
CZluvery
I3rahmani
Baitarni
CZluvery
Baitami
I i) From Talabveri to 5 km of Mysore
~istrict Border Yagni (Kamataka)
ii) From KR Sagar Dam to Hogenekb ~
(Karnataka)
iii) From Pugaiur to Grand-AnicLllt
(T. Nadu)
iv) Grand Anicut to Kumbhakonam
(T.Nadu)
Upatream of Chandbali
C
E
E
E
0
A
C
C
C
B
TotZlI
Coliforms
~O, BOD,
Coliforms
BOD, Total
Coliforms
Total
Coliforms
BOD, &
Coliforms
Brahmani Upstream of Oharmshalla 0 B BOD &
Coliforms
Tapi Tapi from city limits of Nepanagar to the city
limits of Burhanpur (MP)
E A ~O, BOD
4.5.2 Gomti Action Plan
The river is badly polluted in the stretch Lucknow to Sultanpur and Jaunpur due to domestic
effluent from Lucknow and industrial effluent from Lucknow to Jaunpur and Sultanpur. It is
proposed to intercept, divert and treat 243 mid of domestic water besides other proposals of
community toilets, river front development, afforestation and solid waste management.
4.6 National River Action Plan
On the basis of lessons learnt and experience gained of GANGAACTION PLAN, a National
River Action Plan has been drawn by the Ministry of Environment and Forests. The main aim of
the programme is to restore the water quality of the polluted river stretches to the _designated best
use in twelve major river basins. The priortisation of river water bodies would be done on strong
scientific criteria. The Ministry of Environment & Forests, Governments of India would work as
nodal Ministry to co-ordinate and monitor the plan. The cost of the capital works would be shared
I
equally between the Central and the State Governments and the cost of operation and maintenance
of the plants and works would be fully borne by the respective State Governments.
The three major sources of ptlllution viz. (a) domestic wastes, (b) industrial wastes and (c)
non-point sources would be tackled according to their intensity in the identified stretches/rivers.
Apart from tackling the organic and the bacteriological pollution of water, adequate emphasis
will also be placed on bringing the heavy metals and toxic elements within the permissible limits.
Due emphasis will be given to optimum use of treated domestic effluent for irrigation taking care
to see that such practices do not affect the ground water and human health apart from maximisation
of resource recovery through biogas generation, disposal of sludge and pisciculture. Afforestation
along the river course and in its upper reaches, optimum use of resources, site specific and scheme
specific research inputs and a more intensive public participation to eliminate delays in
implementation and sustaining it on a long term basis are also proposed.
The plrm also includes monitoring rmd control of pollution from large and medium scale
industries through existing regulation and Acts for small scale clusters of industries including
promoting the concept of a common effluent treatment plant, shifting of cremation places and
I
I
18

proper maintenance of sanitation components. Action Plans for individual river basins are as
under:
4.6.1 SABARMATI RIVER ACTION PLAN
Due to rapid growth of Ahmedabad town situated on the banks of river Sabarmati and
discharge of998 mId of effluents from urban and industrial sources, the water quality of the river
has been degraded badly ,bringing it to Ecategory against desirable Bcategory. The works proposed
to be tClken up include interception and diversion of sewage from various outfalls apart from
setting up of sewClge treatment plants for a capacity of 891 mid.
4.6.2 SUTLEJ RIVER ACTION PLAN
The prominent towns of Ludhiana and Jalnndhar are among the twelve towns located in
the catchment area of river Sutlej. The domestic and industrial waste water from these towns
reach river Sutlej directly or indirectly. The water quality of the river downstream of Nangal has
been deteriorated to E Class against desired category of C Class. The Works proposed to be taken
up include interception and treatment of sewage for the towns of Ludhiana, Jalandhar, Phagwara
and Phillaur apart frQm providing low cost sanitation facilities, electric and improved wood based
crematoria, solid waste collection & disposal and afforestation programmes.
4.6.3 TAPI RIVER ACTION PLAN
The river Tapi is polluted in the stretch from the city limits of Nepanagar to Burhanpur.
Since most of the pollution in the Nepanagar is due to industrial sector, therefore, the problem of
pollution abatement at Nepanagar shall be tackled through enforcement of Envirorunent Protection
Laws and the poUution abatement works are proposed in Burhanpur town only where the pollution
is becCluse of domestic sector. The river water quality at certain point is deteriorated both in
terms of DO and BOD in the entire stretch. The proposed works include river front development
activities, tree plantation, afforestation and solid waste management.
4.6.4 KHAN-KSHIPRA RIVER ACTION PLAN
River Kshipra, a tributary of river Chambnl travels along the city limits of Ujjain, one of
the oldest cities of India. The untreated sewage from the city of Ujjain finds its way into the river
thereby deteriorating the river water quality both in terms of DO and BOD. River Khan, a tributary
of river Kshipra originates from near Indore. During the course of river, it is polluted by the
untreated sewage of Indore city. The proposed works include sewage h-eatment, low cost sanitation
progrcllllmes, improved wood based crematoria, river front facilities, solid waste collection and
disposal and afforestation programmes.
4.6.5 BETWA RIVER ACTION PLAN
Some important cities like Vidisha, Bhopal, Mandi Deep and Chattarpur etc. are situated
on river Betwa. The river water quality has deteriorated to grade D in its first 100 kms due to
discharge from the 3 towns of Mandi Deep, Bhopal and Vidisha. The proposed works include
treatment of sewage, solid waste collection and disposal, low cost sanitation facilities, ghat
development, crematoria and plantation of trees
19

4.6.6 NARMADA RIVER ACTION PLAN
About 59% of the total catchment area of Jabalpur falls within the Narmada basin. The city
of Jabalpur has no system of disposal of sewage and the sewage falls into Narmada directly or
indirectly through river Prayat. The water quality of river Prayat at the time of discharge into the
Narmada shows deterioration both in terms of DO and BOD. The proposed 'works include treat
ment of sewage, improved wood based crematoria, low cost sanitation, ghat development solid
waste collection and disposal and afforestation.
4.6.7 WAINGANGA RIVER ACTION PLAN
Wainganga river, a tributary of river Godavari, is polluted between Chapra nad Quarali.
The proposed works include treatment of sewage, improved wood based crematoria, low cost
sanitation facilities, river front development, solid waste management and afforestation.
4.6.8 KRISHNA RIVER ACTION PLAN
The cities of Hyderabad, Pune, Satara, Sholapur, Kohlapur, Bizapul~ Balgaum, Raichur
and Kurnool are situated on the banks ofriver Krishna. Around 500 important industrial units are
also situated, quite of few of them are in the large scale sector. The river is polluted in various
stretches particularly between Karad to Sangli, Dhom Dam to Nasro Babari, Thirthahalli to
confluence with Bhadra, Bhadra to Nagarjunasagar Sagar Dam and to Reopella. Surveys and
studies to prepare feasibility reports for taking up pollution abatement schemes are in progress.
4.6.9 CHAMBAL RIVER ACTION PLAN
Important towns such as Nagda, Ratlam, Nimuch and Kota are situated on the bank of river
Chambal. It is their major source of drinking water supply. The river is being polluted due to
discharge of domestic waste from two towns, Nemuch and Nagda in MP and Kota in Rajasthan.
The existing class of river water quality is D and E respectively against designated dass of C. The
proposed works include treatment of sewage, important wood based crematoria, bathing ghats,
solid waste management, low cost sanitation and afforestation.
4.6.10 CAUVERY RIVER ACTION PLAN
The Cauvery is heavily polluted in different stretches due to heavy abstraction of water
from the twelve dams on its course. The proposed works indude treatment of sewage, low cost
sanitation, crematoria, solid waste management, river front development and afforestation.
4.6.11 SUBARNAREKHA RIVER ACTION PLAN
There are three major towns located on river Subernrekha in Bihar namely Ranchi,
Jamshedpur and qhatshila. These towns discharge municipal sewage into the river through open
drains and cause pollution to the river. The proposed works include treatment of sewage, low cost
sanitation, crematoria, river front development and afforestation
20

5. WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
Because of the large variation in the water resources potential and the population in different
river basins, the availability of water per person also varies widely from basin to basin. Each
basin has its own specific problems. The issues to be tackled and the future strategies to be adopted
may vary depending upon the water availability and the local conditions. Developments have
also taken place to varying degrees in different river basins. Utilisable surface water resources
and present stage of utilisation for major river basins are given in Table 5.1. Basinwise storages
are given in Table 5.2. The utilisable groundwater resources of the country has been assessed as
431.4 BCM per yeal~ out of which 71.1 BCM are for drinking and industrial uses and 360.3 BCM for
irrigation use. The present draft is 115.2 BCM which is about 30'1.> of the resource available for
irrigation. The basinwise details of groundwater potential assessed on prorata basis by Central
Ground Water Board and level of development is given in Table 5.3. The basin characteristics and
developments in the country are discussed below.
Fig 5.1 Basinwlse Utilisable Surface Water Resources
Godavari
Brahmapulra &Barak
Ganga
OIherRillers
Indus
5.1 Indus Basin
The Indus Basin extends over an area of 11,65,500 sq.km. and lies in Tibet (China), India,
Pakistan and Afganistan. The drainage area of the basin lying in India is 321289 sq. km., nearly
9.8°/,> of the total geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the States ofJammu & Kashmir,
Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Union 1erritory of Chandigarh. The total population in
the basin as per 1991 census has been estimated as 41.9 million. The average density of population
is 131 persons per sq. km. There are 16 towns with a population more than one lakh. The important
urban centres are Ludhiana (1O.llakhs), Amritsar (7.09 lakhs), Jalandhar (5.20 lakhs), Chandigarh
(5.75 lakhs), Jammu and Srinagar. Other important towns in the basin include Bikaner, Pahala,
Ambala and Bathinda.
There is already a high level of development of water resources in the basin. During the
pre-plan period, many diversion works such as Upper Bari Doab canal, Sirhind canal, Ranbir
I
21

Indian Water Resources Sm.-·ie/v
canal, Eastern canals and Gang canal existed in the Basin. Important projects taken up and
completed in the plan period include Bhakra-Nangal, Beas Project, and Harike barrage. Rajasthan
canal, Thein dam, Sutlej-Yamuna link canal and Ravi-Tawi lift irrigation are some of the important
projects under construction. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects
has been assessed as 5.3 M.ha. As against this, the potential cre"ted amounts to 4.5 Mha. The
present stage of surface water utilisation is 87% of the annual potential and that of groundwater is
80.5%. The live storage capacity created is about 14 BCM
The hydropower potential of the basin has been assessed as 19988 MW at 60% load factor.
Out of 190 schemes identified in the basin, 18 schemes with a total installed capacity of 3517 MW
are in operation and 14 schemes with a total installed capacity of5626 MW are in various stages of
construction.
The strategies in improving irrigated agriculture should be correcting waterlogged areas
by strict regulation of canal water supplies and conjunctive use of ground water with canal supplies,
correcting soil salinity, improving irrigation use efficiency and drainage measures. In the hilly
areas the strategy should be to expand irrigation facilities by collecting rain water runoff in tanks
and to adopt improved methods of irrigCltion. North western area of Rajasthan also forms a part of
this basin which is an arid region. The Indira Gandhi Canal Project is changing the face of this
region.
The Bhakra-Beas system in the basin is a major multi-purpose system catering to competing
demands. This system forms a major part of the overall plan for optimum utilisation of waters of
the rivers, viz., the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, all tributaries of the Indus river. The 226 m high
Bhakra dam (reservoir capacity 7191 MCM) and the 29 m high Na::lgal dam 13 km downstream of
Bhakra on the Sutlej river provide water for irrigation demands of 2.6 million ha of new area
while improving irrigation in 0.9 million ha of previously developed land in addition to hydro
electric power generating capacity of 1102 MW. The Beas project consists of two dallls across Beas
river (Pandoh and Beas) and a I3eas-Sutlej link channel for hydropower generation. The benefits
from the project are irrigation supply for nearly 4.9 million ha and 504 MW of hydropower. The
system has to meet the conflicting demands of irrigation and hydropower generation, in addition
to augmenting water supply to Delhi-India's capital city.
The main industrial centres in the basin are Nangal, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jallandhar,
Kartarpur, Pathankot, Patiala, Phagwara and Govindgarh etc. The water intensive industries are
fertilisers and iron and steel etc. Systematic assessment of water consumption by the industries is
yet to be made.
There is no problem of drinking water in the basin except certain pockets in the drought
prone areas of Rajasthan State. Aprovision for supply of 740 MCM has been made in the Rajasthan
Canal Stage-II project to meet the drinking water requirements in Rajasthan.
So far, water pollution is not a critical problem in this basin except for the lake at Srinagar
which is being polluted by domestic sewage as well as by eroded soil. Water quality has also
deteriorated to E-class downstream of Nangal and Ludhiana with dissolved oxygen (DO) and
biological oxygen demand (BOD) beyond acceptable range for drinking and bathing purposes.
22

5.2 Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna System
5.2.1 Ganga Basin
The Ganga Basin extends over an area of 1086000 sq.km. and lies in Tibet (China), India,
Nepal and Bangladesh. The drainage area of the basin lying in India is 861452 sq. km., nearly
26.2'/'0 of the total geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Uttar Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. This is
the largest basin in terms of catchment area within India and the population. The basin has to be
looked at separately in terms of water resources deve]opment and the related problems.
The total population in the basin as per 1991 census has been estimated as 356.8 million
II which is nearly 42% of the country as a whole. The average density of population is 414 persons
per sq. km. As many as 111 urban centres with population more than one lakh (as per 1991 census)
are situated in the basin. There are 7 cities with population more than 10 lakhs which include the
metropolitan cities of Calcutta ( 109.2 lakhs) and Delhi (84.3Iakhs). The other cities are Kanpur
(21.1Iakhs), Jaipur ( 16.1Iakhs), Lucknow (16.4lakhs), Varanasi(10.3 lakhs) and Patna (l1lakhs).
Other important urban centres are Indore (11.0 lakhs), Agra ( 9.56 lakhs), Dhanbad (8.17 lakhs),
Allahabad ( 8.68 lakhs), Asansol (7.64Iakhs), Gwahor ( 7.2 Lakhs) and Meerut (8.47 lakhs).
Fig 5.2 EXISTING LIVE STORAGE CAPACITY IN
MAJOR RIVER BASINS
lun.: BCM I
Krislma
Brahmaputra & Barak
L .•..._______ _ __ _.............. ___E_a_s_tF_lo_w.i..n_.9.:... _ ____ _ :.:~~..

In the Ganga Basin, the flow in Yamuna and Upper Ganga reaches up to Allahabad during
non-monsoon season is already insufficient to meet the requirements for drinking water supply,
agriculture and industrial uses. The Ganga and Yamuna canal systems irrigate vast areas utilising
the perennial flow of the river. Important storages constructed in the basin indude Matatila,
Sarda Sagar, Rihand, Ramganga, Mayurakshi and DVC reservoirs. Some important projects under
23

Indiem Water Resources Society
construction are Rajghat on Betwa and Tehri on Bhagirathi. Kishau, Gandak (Phase II), Auranga,
Punasi and Upper Kangsabati are some of the new projects. The basin is far ahead of other basins,
with total live storage capacity of almost 38 BCM already completed so far. Creation of additional
storages in these catchments is necessary to overcome the shortage situation. Total replenishable
groundwater of the basin is again the highest in the country whereas level of development is only
about 33%,. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects has been
assessed as 15.7 Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 11.7 Mha.
The hydroelectric power potential of the basin is assessed as 10715 MW at 60'/'0 load factor.
Out of 142 identified schemes in the basin, 22 schemes with a total installed capacity of 2437 MW
are in operation and 12 schemes with installed capacity of about 2716 MW are in various stages of
construction.
A basic problem in the Ganga basin is that in relation to the relatively large annual flow in
the basin, the available storage reservoirs and all foreseeable ones in the basin in India are not
enough to enable an optimum use of the total flows, unlike in some other river basins. For instance
in Narmada or Tapi, the live storage capacity of all schemes could harness more than half the
annual flows while the corresponding figure for Ganga is less than one-sixth, which coupled with
vast culturable area of 60 M.ha creates problems in development.
Tn Damodar sub-basin, integrated development of the valley has been planned to provide
adequate supply of water for irrigation, power generation, industries and domestic use. Out of 7
reservoirs proposed for integrated operation, five have been completed at Maithon, Panchet,
Tenughat, Tillaiya and Konar. But with the setting up of more and more industries, commitment
for existing non-agricultural demand during non-monsoon has already exceeded the allocation of
storage for the purpose. The sub-basin is increasingly becoming water deficit with industrial
pollution compounding the problems downstream of Dhanbad to Haldia.
In Sone sub-basin, the waters of Rihand have to meet competing demands of irrigation,
therrnal and hydropower generation, municipal and industrial requirements. Due to existence of
some of the major coal mines, a number of thermal power stations and vast agriculture tracts have
been causing pressure on water resources in the basin. An existing barrage across the main Sone
provides water to an irrigation area of 0.69 million ha and according to an agreement reached
between the concerned basin States of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, a minimum flow of 138.15 m"/sec
is to be ensured downstream of Rihand in the month of October for irrigation diversions off the
Sone barrage. This often leads to conflicts when irrigation demand and power demand tend to
synchronise. Two hydro power projects (Rihand and Obra) with a total installed capacity of 399
MW already exist and five other projects are planned in the basin. Out of these seven projects,
only one (the proposed Rehar project) is for irrigation and the other six are predominantly for
hydropower generation with a total installed capacity of 682 MW. Irrigation has, therefore, to
compete with the energy sector in the basin. In fact, the studies carried out for the integrated
operation of all the seven reservoirs were based on a strategy to maximise firm power from the
system while irrigation gets the least priority. The simulation studies indicate that the Rehar
project would not be able to meet the irrigation demands as envisaged due to the competing
higher priority demands of hydro power and industries.
Delhi, the capital of the country though situated on the banks of the river Yamuna, faces
serious water shortage. The population of Delhi has grown up from 1.4 million in 1951 to 8.4
million in 1991. Till the 1950s the water requirements of Delhi were fully met from the river
24

Fig 5.3 REPLENISHABLE GROUNDWATER RESOURCES IN
MAJOR RIVER BASINS

Brahmaputra & Barak
Godavari
.[

Mahanadi
Narmada
East Flowing
Ganga
Indus
The water resources potential of the basin are the highest in the country while present
utilisation is the lowest. Prior to independence, little thought was given towards water resources
development in Brahmaputra valley. Most of the projects taken up and completed in the plan
periods were medium and minor schemes. Dhansiri, Champamati and Teesta barrage are three
major projects in the basin. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects
has been assessed as 0.8 Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 0.2 Mha. The live
storage created is only about 1 BCM as against identified capacity of about 60 BCM. Similarly,
the level of groundwater development is as low as 3.6% of the replenishable resource.
The Brahmaputra sub-basin has abundant hydropower potential. As per the latest
assessment the hydropower potential of the sub-basin is 31012 MW at 60% load factor. This is
almost 37% of the country's total hydropower potential. Out of a total of 166 identified schemes,
7 schemes with a total installed capacity of 196 MW are in operation and another 7 schemes with
i a total installed capacity of 1043 MW are under construction. Thus a large chunk of the hydropower
! I potential of the sub-basin remains to be tapped. As a result, the Assam Valley faces endemic
I problem of floods and erosions. Major projects on Dihang, Subansiri, Kameng and Pagladiya etc.
have been identified by the Brahmaputra Board mainly for power generation and flood mitigation.
This basin also holds promise for transfer of water to other deficit basins/ sub-basins which apart
from meeting the demand of deficit basins will reduce the flood problem in Assam Valley.
Soil and water conservation measures should form major strategies in the region for land
and water management. Soil degradation should be arrested by controlling deforestation and
terracing in hills. Runoff in hills should be checked and water conserved soas to develop minor
irrigation potential. Shifting system of farming also needs control.
26

Fig. 5.4 LIVE STORAGE CAPACITY IN MAJOR RIVER BASINS
5~5.6
525
I
100
80
-
60 0
40 -

20
r-
o
- ~
,
L
1
.....
[= ~..._ ____I ~-•
Average Annual Flow Existing Storage On-going & Proposed Storage
27

Though, Brahmaputra basin is abundant in water during monsoon season, there are certain
pockets having drinking water scarcity during non-monsoon season, e.g. Cherapunji in Meghalaya.
In such areas, rain water harvesting has been promoted to overcome the drinking water crisis
in non-monsoon period. The main industries are forest based manufacturing veneer and plY'''Iood,
paper and pulp industries. Oil refineries and tea manufacturing industries are also existing to
make use of the local resources.
The quality of water in the basin is not under threat at present except for sediment load
contributed by erosion in the upper catchment. Collieries, lime and dolomite mining could be a
source of pollution in future.
5.2.3 Barak Basin
The Barak Basin has its drainage areas in India, Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh. The
drainage area of the basin lying in India is 41723 sq. km., nearly 1.38% of the total geographical
area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Assam, and Tripura and forms a part of main Brahmaputra basin. .
The total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 6.19 million. There are 3
towns with a population more than one lakh.The average density of population is 24 persons per
sq. km. The important urban centres in the sub-basin are Imphal (2 lakhs) and Agartala (1.58
lakhs). Silchar and Aizwal are other important towns in the sub-basin.
This is also a surplus water basin with almost entire potential remaining unutilised. There
are only a few minor and lift irrigation schemes existing in the sub-basin. Tipaimukh dam and
Dhaleswari project are the important projects under consideration. The ultimate irrigation potential
from the existing and ongoing projects has been assessed as 0.03 Mha. As against this, the potential
created amounts to 0.002 Mha.
The hydropower potential of the basin is assessed as 2042 MW at 60% load factor. Out of
32 identified schemes, one scheme with an installed capacity of 15 MW is in operation. Bulk of the
potential remains to be exploited. The master plan of Barak sub-basin, being finalised by the
Brahmaputra Board, is giving adequate attention to this aspect. The basin is prone. to floods and
river bank erosion. It requires concerted efforts cmd planning to overcome this problem. The
water quality in this sub-basin is not affected by pollution except for land degradation due to
erosion.
5.3 Godavari Basin
The Godavari basin extends over an area of 312812 sq. km., nearly 9.5'1.) of the total
geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka.
The total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 53.98 million. The average
density of population is 173 persons per sq. km. There are 20 towns with a population more than
one lakh. Nagpur with a population of 16.6 lakhs is the most important urban centres in the
basin. Other important towns are Nasik (7.22 lakhs), Aurangabad (5.92 lakhs), Warangal (4.67
lakhs), Rajamundary (4.04Iakhs), Nanded (3.08 lakhs) and Chandrapur( 2.271akhs).
This is the largest basin in the peninsular region of the country having highest water
resources potential both surface as well as groundwater. During the pre-plan period, many st?rage
and diversion projects were taken up in the basin. Important among them are the Godavari delta
28

I

system, Polavaram irrigation system, Nizam Sagar reservoir, Kadwa dam and Pravara dam.
Important projects completed during the plan periods are Kaddam, Puma, Pus, Bagh, Mula and
Itiadoh. Among the on-going projects, the prominent ones are Sriram Sagar, Godavari barrage,
Upper Penganga, Upper Godavari, Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper Indravati and Ghosi Khurd.
The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects has been assessed as 4.0
Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 2.3 Mha. The live storage capacity already
created is 19.5 BCM. .
The hydroelectric potential of the basin is assessed as 5091 MW at 60% load factor. Out of
54 identified schemes, 9 schemes with installed capacityof 1320 MW are in operation. Another 8
schemes with installed capacity of 1292 MW are in various stages of construction. Thus a large
part of the potential remains to be developed.
In the basin nearly 54% of the surface water potential have so far been utilised. Ground
water development too has not been significant and is only about 17%. Apart from taking up of
surface water storage projects and exploitation of still untapped ground water, irrigation
development in the future should aim at improved methods of irrigation, renovation of existing
tanks and land reclamation. Even after the contemplated developments, the basin is likely to have
sizable surpluses, which could possibly be diverted to water short areas in the south. In this
respect interlinking of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Pennar and Cauvery under the Peninsular
Rivers Development Component of National Perspectives for Water Resources Development is
being investigated by the National Water Development Agency.
At present, water supply is not a critical problem. However, the areas in the districts of
Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Bir, Nasik and Osmanabad in the upper reaches of the basin are prone
to drought and call for water conservation measures to meet the drinking water requirements in
non-monsoon period. It has been observed that certain sugarcane growing areas in the Maharashtra
portion of the basin, the drinking water has been affected during the non-monsoon period.
As far as water quality is concerned, the stretch on Wainaganga near Ashathi is one of the
highly polluted due to industrial effluents and calls for proper treatment of effluents. Pollution is
also observed downstream of Nasik to Nanded with BOD levels becoming critical.
5.4 Krishna Basin
The Krishna basin extends over an area of 258948 sq. km., nearly 8°!., of the total geographical
area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh ~nd Karnataka.
The total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 60.78 million. The average denSity
of population is 235 persons per sq. km. There are 25 towns with a population more than one
lakh. Hyderabad with a population of 29.1lakhs and Pune (24.85Iakhs) are two most important
urban centres in the basin. Other important towns in the basin are Vijayawada (8.45Iakhs), Hubli
Dharwar (6.47 lakhs), Solapur (6.2 lakhs), Kolhapur (4.17 lakhs), Belgaum (4.01 lakhs), Sangli
(3.64Iakhs) ,Gulbarga (3.1Iakhs), Davangere (2.87Iakhs) and Kurnool (2.75 lakhs).
The basin is agriculturally well developed. Since the early 1850s, major irrigation works
have been undertaken in the basin. The pre-plan water resources development in the basin was
mostly through a few diversion works such as Kurnool-Cuddapah Canal in Andhra Pradesh and
Neera canal in Maharashtra. During the plan period, many storage and diversion projects were
taken up and completed. Important among them arc Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Nagarjunasagar,
Malaprabha, Bhima and Bhadra. About 86'10 of surface water potential of the basin has been put to
beneficial use so far. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects has
been assessed as 4.7 Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 3.2 Mha. The live
29

storage capacity created is 34.5 BCM. Only 29% of ground water potential has been exploited.
The hydroelectric potential of the basin is 2997 MW at 60'/'0 load factor. Out of a total of 49
potential schemes, 17 schemes with an installed capacity of 1947 MW are in operation. Another 11
schemes with an installed capacity of 703 MW are in various stagc;s of construction.
Nagarjunasagar, one of the earliest multi-purpose projects taken up in the basin provides
for irrigation to an area of 0.9 million ha and has an installed capacity of 900 MW for power
generation. Upstream of Nagarjunasagar is Srisailam which provides storage for an irrigated area
of 0.2 million ha and has an installed capacity of 770 MW for power generation. Nagarjunasagar
and Srisailam reservoirs are operated in tandem to meet the irrigation demands rather than power
demands. Still, the system is effective in meeting energy peak loads. Strategies for irrigated
agriculture should include explOitation of ground water by sinking of wells, providing drainage
in major command areas and renovation of the existing large number of minor tanks.
Krishna is an inter-State river and each of the basin-States has been allocated a certain
share of the total water available in the basin. All the available waters of Krishna have been
committed for irrigation except 3455 million cubic metre (MCM) for westward power generation
diversion and 110 MCM for meeting the municipal needs of Hyderabad city. The provision of 110
MCM to meet the municipal and industrial needs of Hyderabad has been found to be grossly
insufficient to meet growing demands. One of the alternatives proposed to augment the supplies
is to transfer water from the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam system through a canal. Hyderabad is
situated about 200 kmfrom Srisailam and large agricultural tracts lying along the proposed canal
route are also demanding water from the system for purposes of irrigation.
Hyderabad is a metropolitan city situated in the basin. Two storage reservoirs, Osmansagar
and Himayatsagar, were constructed in the 1920s to provide water to the city for its domestic and
industrial use. There is, thus, a three-way competition for water in the basin between irrigation,
hydropower generation and municipal needs.
Madras city is rocated outside the Krishna basin about 400 km south-east of Srisailam in
the adjoining State of Tamil Nadu and also considers Krishna basin waters as the means to solve
its chronic drinking water shortage problem. Each of the Krishna basin-States has in fact agreed
to a transfer of 142 MCM of Krishna flood waters for supply to Madras. Here again, the large
agricultural tracts lying en-route are demanding water for irrigation purposes. Perhaps, if there
had been no allocation for westward diversions for hydropower generation, the total demand for
irrigation and municipal requirements of Hyderabad and Madras could have been met without
much difficulty. But then, that would have been at the cost of high value energy. As an alternative
it is proposed to link Godavari, an adjoining river basin in the north, to Krishna. Godavari has
surplus water resources. The situation in Krishna should improve when the proposed Godavari-
Krishna link is put into operation. .
Leaving aside the city of Hyderabad, providing municipal and industrial water supply is
not a critical problem in the basin at present. River pollution problem is also not very critical in the
basin except for the stretches on Bhadra river near Kudremukh iron ore mining areas, on Musi
river near Hyderabad due to domestic and industrial effluents of the city and on Tungbhadra due
to paper and pulp mills at Bhadravati and Kumarapatnam. Proper treatment of effluents has to be
ensured in these areas. The BOD and colliforms are also becoming critical in the Krishna river
between Karad to SangIi, Dhom dam to Narso Babri in Maharashtra and from Nagarjunasagar
dam to Repella in Andhra Pradesh. Future development activities have to pay due attention
towards these stretches.
30

Indian Water Resources Socie(v
5.5 Cauvery Basin
The Cauvery basin extends over an area of 81155 sq. km., nearly 2.7'/'0 of the total
geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala
and Pondicherry. The total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 29.33 million. The
average density of population is 361 persons per sq. km. There are 13 towns in the basin with a
population more than one lakh. Coimbatore with a population of 11.36lakhs is the most important
urban centre in the basin. Other important towns are Mysore (6.52 lakhs), Truruchirapalli (7.11
lakhs), Salem (5.74Iakhs), Mallasamudram (3.44 ~akhs) and Tiruppur (3.06 lakhs).
There has been a very high level of surface water resources development in the basin with
present utilisation of the order of 95%, which is the highest in the country. In fact Cauvery delta is
one of the oldest irrigation systems in the country with Grand Anicut constructed some 2000
years back at the head of the system. Krishnarajasagar and Mettur Dam were the only major
storages in the country at the time of Independence. Lower Bhavani is the important project
completed during the plan period. Hemavatru, Kabini, Harangi and Varuna canal are important
on going projects in the basin. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing
projects has been assessed as 1.6 Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 1.3 Mha.
Out of identified 30 hydropower projects, 16 are storage schemes and the remaining are run-of
the river schemes. So far 37% of the assessed potential has been exploited through 11 schemes
with a total installed capacity of 763 MW.
Almost the entire basin is semi-arid. Live storage created is 7.5 BCM. Scope for creating
additional storages being limited, the strategies for improvements in irrigated agriculture should
concentrate on the renovation of the large number of old tanks and exploitation of still about 45%
of the untapped ground water through a programme of dug-cum-bore wells. Increasing water
use efficiency by following appropriate irrigation delivery system and on-farm practices in
command areas of projects, providing drainage facilities in major irrigation cO!nmand areas are
some of the measures that are essential. Delta area is already facing water shortage and improved
water management may be one option available to overcome the situation. Changes in cropping
pattern for adopting less water intensive crops mClY have to be thought of in future.
For future development, water quality requires caution from Talakaveri to Yagni &
Krishnarajasagar dam to Hogenekkal in Karnataka, Pugalur to Grand Anicut and Grand Anicut
to Kubhakonam in Tamilnadu.
5.6 Pennar Basin '
The PennaI' basin extends over an area of55213 sq. km., nearly 1.7% of the total geograprucal
area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. The total
population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 9.7 million. The average density of popUlation
is 176 persons per sq. km. There are 6 towns in the basin with a population more than one lakh.
The only important town is Nellore with a population of 3.16Iakhs.
During the pre-plan period, most of the projects constructed in the basin were medium
and minor schemes. The Nellore and Sangam anicuts form the oldest irrigation system in the
basin. Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna basin irrigates areas in Pennar basin also. The
only major project in the basin is the Somasila project which is under construction. The ultimate
irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects has been assessed as 0.19 Mha. As
I'
I
31

against this, the potential created amounts to 0.13 Mha.
Almost ~he .entire ?a.sin is semi-arid, and upstream areas are drought prone. Potential for
stora~e reserVOIrS IS n~gh?lble. However, about 73% surface water potential has been put to
benefIClal use so far. Irngahon development in this basin should be directed towards the renovation
of larg~ ~umber of tan.ks, gro~nd water exploitation ofremaining 62'X, potential, increasing water
use efflClency and taking up mtegrated drainage-cum-irrigation management in the delta areas.
At present, there is no problem in meeting the drinking and industrial water requirements
in the basin as there are no big towns and the industrial development is very limited because of
lack of mineral resources. Existing small industries are mostly based on agricultural produce.
Water conservation measures should form the essential part of future strategies in this basin.
Water quality does not pose a problem for development of water resources following the prescribed
safeguards.
5.7 Mahanadi Basin
The Mahanadi basin extends over an area of 141589 sq. km., nearly 4.3'10 of the total
geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar

and Maharashtra. The total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 26.6 million. The

, average density of population is 188 persons per sq. km. There are 10 towns with a population

more than one lakh. The important urban centres . are Raipur ( 4.62 lakhs), Durg-Bhilai Nagar

(6.89Iakhs), Cuttack (4.39Iakhs), Bhubaneshwar (4.12Iakhs) and Bilaspur (2.34.lakhs).
Two important projects completed during pre-plan period in the basin are the Mahanadi

Canal and Tandula reservoir. Important projects taken up and completed during plan periods

include the Hirakud dam, Mahanadi delta project and Hasdo barrage. Among the projects under

construction, the important ones are the Mahanadi reservoir project, Pairi dam, Bango dam, Jonk

dam and Birupa barrage. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects

has been assessed as 1.65 Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 1.06 Mha.


Out of a total of 6 identified schemes, 2 schemes with a total installed capacity of 305 MW are in

operation and one scheme with an installed capacity of 55 MW is under construction.

Except for the two southern districts, namely Kalahandi and Phulbani which are drought
prone, the basin in general has adequate water with promise for transfer of water to other deficit
basins. Only about 34% of surface water potential has been exploited so far. Live storage capacity · I
of 8.5 BCM has been created with further scope to increase it to 24 BCM in future. Ground water
exploitation is negligible (6%). Strategies for the future should include creation of more storage
reservoirs, renovation of existing tanks and exploitation of ground water in a big way. The basin
is rich in mineral resources.
The problem of providing water supply to 13hilai steel plant (BSP) in this basin presents a
classical example of competing demands for water. The BSP in the State of Madhya Pradesh is in
the Seonath sub-basin of the Mahanadi. The Plant has a capacity of 4 million tons at present and
is expected to be expanded to 5.03 million tons by 2000 AD. The BSP is situated in a predominantly
agricultural region. Water for both irrigation and the BSP is supplied through a system of seven
reservoirs. Out of the seven reservoirs, only one at Kharkhara, was constructed exclusively for
supplying water to BSP The other six are primarily intended for irrigation. However irrigation
suffered from the beginning itself because of the demands of BSP Irrigation water from Tandula U
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indian Water Resources Society
system (constructed in 1923 and having a well established irrigation) had to be curtailed by 18000 I,
ha to supply water to BSP. Subsequently in spite of the construction of a separate reservoir '
exclusively for BSfj specific provision had to be made in Ravishankarsagar storage (completed in
1978) for meeting the increasing demands of BSP due to increase in the production capacity of the
plant. BSP is situated about 65 km from Tandula reservoir and receives water supplies through
the Tandula canal which carries irrigation water for·lands both above and below BSP.
Due to the general shortage of water, cultivation in the region is restricted mostly to the
main cropping season of June to October. However, sufficient water is required to be kept stored
in the reservoirs at the end of the rainy season (i.e., SeptemberIOctober) for supply to BSP. In the
years of overall shortage due to less rainfall, there are conflicting demands on the available water
in the system. During such period farmers are denied access to the available water since it is
reserved for industrial supply. The use of the same water conductor system for supply to both
irrigation and the industry adds to the problem. Capacity limitations cause the.farmers to feel
agitated when they are denied adequate and timely supplies in spite of sufficient storage in the
reservoirs.
In future, when the demand from BSP further increases with the planned expansion, the
situation is bound to become grave. Probably additional sources have to be identified and tapped.
Simultaneously improving the present water management practices may have to be resorted to
otherwise irrigation will suffer further in the years to come.
Though the pollution is not yet critical, yet the mining activities should be kept in check as
the basin is rich in mineral resources.
5.8 Brahmani-Baitarni Basin
The combined basin of Brahmani and Baitarni extends over an area of 51822 sq. km., nearly
1.7°1.) of the total geographical area of the country. The independent drainage area of Brahmani
and Baitarni are 39033 sq. km. and 12879 sg. km respectively. The basin lies in thE' States of Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa and Bihar. The total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 9.77
million. The average density of population is 189 persons per sq. km. Rourkela with a population
of 3.98 lakhs is the only important urban centre in the basin.
Irrigation has been practised in the basin from historical times. The Orissa canal system
was the only important irrigation project existing in the basin in the pre-plan period. During the
plan period, important project completed in the basin is Salandi project. Rengali multi-purpose
project on Brahmani and Anandpur barrage on Baitarani are other projects under construction. The
ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects has been assessed as 0.72 Mha.As
against this, the potential created amounts to 0.24 Mha. .
The hydroelectric power potential of the basin has been assessed as 548 MW at 60% load
factor. Out of the 17 identified schemes, only one scheme with an installed capacity of 135 MW is
in operation.
The basin has adequate water which needs to be developed for beneficial use by storage
projects and ground water exploitation. Present storages capacity of 4.76 BCM can be increased to
about 14 BCM in future by taking up various projcts already under consideration. Remaining
about 93'/'0 of the replenishable groundwater can also be put to use by systematic development
efforts. It also affords a scope for transfer of water to other deficit areas.
There is no problem in the basin as far as meeting the municipal and industrial requirements
33

is concerned. However, pollution due to mining activities needs to be taken care of as the basin is
rich in variety of minerals. The water quality upstream of Dharamshalla is on de~rading trend
due to critical BOD and colliform and development process has to take appropriate measures to
check it.
5.9 Sabarmati Basin
The Sabarmati basin extends over an area of 21674 sq. km., nearly 0.66% of the total
geographical area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Gujarat and Rajasthan. The total
population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 10.58 million. The average density of
population is 488 persons per sq. km. There are 5 towns with a population more than one lakh.
The only important urban centres is Ahemdabad with a population of 32.98 lakhs.
Sabarmati basin is well-developed in water resources. Most of the irrigation projects are
mediurn and minor. Hathmati reservDir project completed during the plan period and the Sabarmati
reservoir project which is under construction are the two important projects in the basin. The
ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing projects has been assessed as 0.12
Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 0.03 Mha. The hydro-electric potential in
the basin is almost negligable.
The present utilisation is about 93'10 of the donual surface flows. There is hardly scope for
storage projects. Strategies for future irrigation development should concentrate on exploitation
of ground water for conjunctive use, at the same time keeping a check against overdrawal of
ground water. There is competition between irrigation and domestic water supply. Sabarmati
reservoir in the basin has to supply drinking water to the urban centres of Ahemdabad and
Gandhinagar. As a result, during the two consecutive bad years, irrigation had to be totally
suspended from the Sabarmati reservoir.
The river reach near Ahmedabad has highly polluted stretches because of domestic and
industrial effluents. Therefore, the immediate problem is the water supply to Ahmedabad and
Gandhinagar as well as control of pollution in this reach. Dissolved oxygen, BOD and colliform
in the stretch are critical. Treatment of effluents to increase recycling and reuse may be the immediate
solution.
5.10 Mahi Basin
The Mahi basin extends over an area of 34842 sq. km., nearly 1.1°!, of the total geographical
area of the country. The basin lies in the States of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The
total population as per 1991 census has been estimated as 10.48 million. The average density of
population is 301 persons per sq. km. There are 3 towns with a population more than one lakh.
Vadodara is the only important urban centre with a population of 11.15 lakhs.
The Jaisamund tank in Udaipur district of Rajasthan is the oldest irrigation project in the
basin constructed in the pre-plan period. Kadana dam (Mahi project) was completed during the
plan periods. The important projects under construction in the basin are Mahi Bajaj Sagar, Jakham,
Panam and Mahi (MP) projects. The ultimate irrigation potential from the existing and ongoing
projects has been assessed as 0.52 Mha. As against this, the potential created amounts to 0.33 Mha.
The hydroelectric power potential of the basin is 68.6 MW at 60% load factor. .Out of 5
identified schemes, one s~heme with an installed capacity of 37 MW is in operation ~md another
two schemes with a total installed capacity of 63 MW are under construction. Thus, hydropower
development is nearing saturation in the basin.
34

RIVER BASIN MANAGEMENT 1997

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