EFFICIENCY OF WATER RESOURCES SYSTEM WRD - 2004

I THEME PAPER ON I
FFICI NCY OF WATER R SOURCES SYSTEM
Sardar Sarover

Themes of Water Resources Days & World Water Days Functios

/ I
i
YEAR I TITLE - WATER RESOURCES DAY TITLE- WORLD WATER DAY
i
- i ! I
"Vv'ater Conservation"1988
"People's Participation in Development &

Management

1989
-
"Water for Future"

-

1991

1990
"Water Conservation

-

1992
i
- I
1993
"Water And Environment"
"Water Resources Development :

Performance Over-View"
-
"Role of Ground Water, Small Dams in "Caring for Water Resources Day is
Water Resources Development"
1994
Everybody's business".
"Water Management - Need for Public "Women & Water"
Awareness.
1995
"Water f(iT Thirsty Cities"
Development Problems & Prospects"
"Inter Basin Transfers of Water for National1996
"World's Water - Is There
Options"
"Inter Basin Management - Issues andi 1997
Enough?"
"Ground Water - the Invisible
Development in India"
1998 "Five Decades of Water Resources
Resource".
"Water Vision 2050" "Everybody Lives Downstream"1999
"Water for 21 st Century"
Development".
2000 "Human Issues Involved in Water Resources
,/
"Water and Health""Management of Floods and Droughts"2001
2002 "Integrated Water Resources Development I"Water for Development"
I
And Management. I
I . II
" Water for Future"
Industrial Sectors".
2003 "Conservation of Water in Agriculture and

I THEME PAPER ON I

EFFICIENCY OF WATER RESOURCES SYSTEM

With sub themes on
.. Critical Review Present Level of Efficiency and,
.. Measures for Improving Efficiency of Water Resources Systems
INDIAN WATER RESOURCES SOCIETY

FOREWORD

The efficient utilization of water resources calls for a holistic approach to planning
development and management within the precinct of natural hydrological boundaries. To focus
attention on various issues relating to water resources development and to create public
awareness, Water Resources Day is being observed by the Ministry of Water Resources,
Government of India, and Non-Government organizations as well as water users in the country on
22nd
March every year since 1987. Since 1994, World Water Day is also being organized, around
the world on the same day, after the United Nations adopted 22nd
March as " World Water Day".
The Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS) takes initiative in preparing a Theme Paper on a
chosen topic every year, which becomes the basis for discussion in the combined apex National
22nd
Curtain Raiser Function being organized in India, every year on March at New Delhi. This
year's theme is "Efficiency of Water Resource7s System" with sub Themes (i) Critical Review
Present level of Efficiency and (ii) Measures for Improving Efficiency of Water Resources
Systems.
The availability of water on annual basis is almost fixed. The per capita availability of fresh water in
the World is continuously decreasing. In India, at the time of independence, it was much more than
the present availability and use was also limited. To meet the increased food requirements of the
ever increasing population, there is constant pressure for increase in food production. Since,
irrigated agriculture is more productive, there is increased demand of water for agriculture sector. [n
this backdrop irrigation being a major consumer of the water, low efficiencies obtained in the
irrigation sector is a cause for concern. Therefore, for meeting the increased irrigation demand, it is
necessary to adopt measures for improving the water use efficiencies and economise on water use
in existing water systems besides exploring new avenues for increasing the water availability.
Though improvement in water use efficiency in irrigation should be a thrust area, the country cannot
afford to allow wasteful use of water in other sectors such as domestic and industrial. Each litre
conserve can help to meet new water demand. Vigorous efforts would be needed to be note by al[
concerned including people from all walks of life in water conservation effort. This need was also
amply reflected in the appeal of Hon'ble Prime Minister ~f India made in the Fre~h Water Year,
while declaring water conservation as a national mission.
Water conservation and its efficient use are now the most economically and environmentally
sustainable water demand and supply options. There is a need for water conservation, not only to
restore the fast deteriorating eco-system of the country but also to meet the inevitable emerging
shortage even for drinking and domestic water in near future. Awareness of water as a scarce
resource, should be fostered among the masses. Optimal utilization of developed water resources,
and demand side management through mass awareness should be two important components of
strategy. The theme paper attempts to take stock of present status of efficiency of water use in
various sectors, analyse reasons for low efficiencies and suggest measures to improve them to tide
over the situation of water scarcity.
The theme paper has been prepared and reviewed by a team of experts, listed at the following
page. Their valuable input and critical observations are acknowledged with gratitude and it is hoped
that efforts of all professionals of water sector will enable us to purse the objectives of the
"Efficiency of Water Resources system", in right earnest.
New Delhi ( A. K. Goswami )
22,March 2004 President,IWRS

Contributions by :
1. Er. S.M.SOOD, Life Member, IWRS & Chief Engineer (lMO), CWC- Group Leader ·
2. Er.C.D.Khoche, LifeMember, IWRS, Former ChiefEngr. CWC & Consultant WAPCOS
3. Er. R.P.Saxena, Life Member, IWRS & Director (BP), CWC
4.5. Er. A.K.Sinha, Life Member ,IWRS & Director (NWP), CWC
5. Er. P.V.Rao, Director (WM), CWC
6. Er.Som Dutt Gupta ,Life Member, IWRS& Director (lP-N), CWC
7. Er. V.K.Chawla, Life Member, IWRS & Director (lP-S),CWC - Coordinator
Reviewers:
1. Er. Z.Hasan, Former Secretary ,Ministry of Water Resources GOI
2. Er. Suresh Chandra, Former Chairman, CWC
3. Er. M.Gopalakrislman, Former Member, CWC& Secretary General ICID
4. Er. P.B.S.Sarma, Former Director,WTC, & Chairman, SRM, IAR!

THEME PAPER ON
EFFICIENCY OF WATERRESOURCES SYSTEM
CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i-iv
1. INTRODUCTION 1- 3
2. CRITICAL REVIEW OF 4 -18
PRESENT LEVEL EFFICIENCY
3. MEASURES FOR IMPROVING EFFICIENCIES OF 19 - 37
WATER RESOURCES SYSTEMS
4. CONCLUSION 38-42

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

PREAMBLE

Rapid industrialisation and urbanization coupled with continuous decline in per capita
availability of water is putting lot of pressure on available water resources of India. It is
estimated that by 2050, 30% of the geogrC!phical area and 16% of population in the country will
be under water scarcity condition. To meet the increased food requirements of the country,
there is increased demand of water for irrigated agriculture. At the same time availability of
water for irrigation is reducing due to relatively sharp increase in demand from other sectors.
The available utilizable water resources would be inadequate to meet the future water demand
of all the sectors. However, it is felt that lot of water is wasted and situation can be salvaged by
making concerted efforts to achieve higher standards of efficiency in water use.
CRITICAL REVIEW OF PRESENT LEVEL EFFICIENCY
With progressive increase in demand of water for various sectors, it has become
imperative that the water use efficiency be improved in all the sectors. Though with increase in
efficiency in irrigation sector, a lot of water can be saved, water wastage in other sectors also
cannot be allowed to go unnoticed. Each litre conserved can help to meet new water demand.
Before devising any plan for improvement in water use efficiency, it would be appropriate to
take stock of the past development efforts, achievements, the shortcomings and present water
use efficiency.
Irrigation Sector
The country has made rapid strides in irrigation development in the Plan era
beginning 1951 resulting in increase of foodgrain production from meagre 51 Million Tonnes at
that time to present level of about 212 M.T. As much as 52 percent rise in food grain
production can be attributed to increase in irrigated area. Productivity of irrigated lands in India
ranges from around 1.5 tonnes per ha to 4.0 tonnes per ha for cereal crops compared to
achievable target of about 5 to 6 tonnes per ha. Though productivity in irrigated areas has
increased, such increases are still way below the world standards and of developing countries
like China and Brazil.
Total water use in agriculture is of the order of about 525 BCM which is about 83% of
total present water use in the country. With this water use, country is able to produce about
212 M. T of foodgrains which is considered to be sufficient for meeting the present foodgrain
requirements of the country. The National Commission on Integrated Water Resources
Development Plan (NCIWROP)has estimated that the irrigation water requirement will be of the
order of 628 BCM and 807 BCM respectively for low demand and 'high demand scenario. The ,
water use efficiency 'in most irrigation systems is low and estimated to be in the range of 35
percent to 40 percent. Some data of irrigation efficiency, as collected, indicate that overall
project efficiencies vary from 30 percent to 41 percent.
The main cause of low efficiencies is observed to be deficiencies in water delivery
system, inequitable delivery of water to the fields and inefficient water management. The
reasons of present low efficiencies include, long period of development of large projects
resulting in shift towards high water consuming crops as well as wasteful use of water by head
reach farmers, excessive losses in conveyance due to seepage and evaporation, inequity and
indiscipline resulting from faulty desigtl and operation , low water charges resulting in shortage
of funds with State Govt for maintenance, inability of the systems to quickly adjust to variations
in demand, non- completion of On-Farm development works, ' lack of involvement of
beneficiaries, lack of drainage facilities, use of old age methods of water applic3lion etc.
Besides, absence of any meaningful co-ordination of multidisciplinary departments at various
levels also results in wasteful use of water resulting in low effic~encies &productivity levels.

Studies conducted by FAO in 1998 suggest that in developing countries irrigation
efficiencies obtained are in range of 25 percent (Latin America) to 44 percent (in South Asia)
with average efficiency of only about 38 percent. The efficiencies discussed above are 'as
obtained in major and medium surface irrigation projects and can be called as project
efficiencies. However, looking at the basin as a whoJe, the overall water use efficiencies could
be much higher as lot of seeping/drainage water can be retrieved and reused .
Domestic water Supply sector
The National Water Policy 2002 gives over riding priority to drinking wa er over other
uses. The objective of any water supply scheme ,is to supply safe and clean water in adequate
quantity and as economically as possible. Lot of effluent or waste water is generated in
domestic sector which flows back untreated to the already shrinking water .bodies. Ground
. water is also getting contaminated. In development of water resources for domestic use, the
most important and challenging issue is that of sustainability of resource an quality. With
population growth and rise in urbanization, the demand for treated water for domestic use is
increasing unab.ated. NCIWRDP has estimated that water demand for do esUc sector will
increase to 90 BCM (considering low demand) by 2050 against present de an of about 30
BCM (year 1997-98).
Lot of costly treated water is wasted in domestic sector. There are real a d apparent
losses in domestic sector. Real loss is the actual loss of water due to leakages i distribution
systems, service connections, storage tanks etc. Apparent loss comprisi 9 of nauthorized
use, meter/record inaccuracies etc., is not a loss in actual sense but r eeds to be accounted for.
Investigations suggest that accounted and unaccounted losses are as high as 50% of the total
flow in the distribution system. As much as 80% of the leakage loss reportedly occurs in house
service connections because of corroded pipes, couplings and other connections.
Industrial Sector
Though the water requirement of the industries used to be very small compared to .
other sectoral demands in earlier years, the rapid industrialisation has changed the scenario.
As industries are location specific, the demand on water is also location specific. The present
(1997) water use in industrial sector has been assessed as 22 SCM by the NCIWRDP. The
projected water requirement for the next 50 years, based on the industrial growth rate of Ninth
Five Year Plan and future production figures of various industries has been worked out by the
National Commission as 81 SCM for the year 2050, considering likely technology upgradation,
adoption of efficient methods and use of water conservation practices by way of low cost, no
waste technologies. The industrial plants in our countries are estimated to consume about 2 to
, 3.5 times more water per unit of production compared to similar plants operating in other
countries.
Other uses
Other major consumer of water is Energy sector. Thermal and Nuclear Power plants
consume lot of water. On an average, consumptive water requirement of a thermal plant is of
the order of about 5 cusec per 100 MW. Hydropower is a cheap source of energy and is
generated as a part of overall water development under Multipujrpose projecr Consumptive
use of water in Hydro power is due to evaporation loss only. The other miscellaneous water
leqUtrements are for recreation navigation and for maintaining minimum flow in river. Most of
these uses are non consumptive. . .
MEASURES FOR IMPROVING EFFICIENCIES OF WAl'ER RESt)URCES S,(Sl'EMS
Water con'servation and its efficient use are the most economically and
environmentally sustainable water demand and supply options. The National Water Policy,
2002 also stipulates that efficiency of utilization in all the diverse uses of water should be
optimized and ~n awareness of water as a scarce resources should be fostered. Optimal
utilization of developed water resources and 'demand side management through mass
11

awareness should be two important components of our strategy. One way to ensure rapid
sustainable development is to attempt highest standards of efficiency in water use. It should be
our endeavor to achieve the low demand scenario for which it 'is imperative that considerably
higher level of efficiency is brought about in water use in all the sectors.
Efficiencies obtained in the irrigation sector are estimated to be of the order of 35
percent to 40 percent in surface water and 65 percent to 70 percent in ground water. The
efficiency obtained in surface water use is considered to be very low and there is a great scope
of improvement. The National Commission has opined that it should be possible to achieve 60
percent and 75 percent efficiency by 2050 in surface water and ground water use respectively.
In the domestic sector also water wastage due to leakages can be brought down to 10 percent
o 12 percent from current value of 30 percent to 40 percent. Simi'lar efforts to manage with
less quantity of water by suitable technological interventions will be required in industrial and
energy sector which at presen.t are using much more water compared to similar units/plants in
~he world.
Irrigation Sector
Irrigation sector consumes as much as about 83 percent of total present water use.
ith relatively higher demand from other sectors, the availability of water for irrigation sector is
r ely to reduce progressively to about 70 percent to 75 percent in future. At the same time, with
i creased requirement of foodgrain, water demand for irrigation is also set to rise and thus willi
, ave to be partly met by improvement in water use efficiency. Therefore, the improvement of
e"lciency in irrigation sector, which is a major consumer assumes great significance.
"""provement in efficiencies to the extent of 10 to 20 percent will save lot of water which can be
sed either to increase the irrigated area or to meet demand of other sectors.
There is a considerable scope for rationalization and optimization of irrigation demand .
- _ achieve this, various measures will have to be taken which shall include; early completion of
"'going projects, selective lining of vulnerable reaches of canals, provision of adequate funds
:: - peration and maintenance of irrigation systems through appropriate water pricing, ensuring
; • and timely water supply, enhanced stakeholders' involvement in water management,
: -: er on farm deve'lopment and management, techno,logy upgradation through use of micro
·=3:ion system such as drip and sprinkler, wherever feasib'le, etc. Various other issues that
ave to be properly and effectively addressed for efficient management of irrigation
s., -&:e s are; bridging the gap between irrigation potential created and utilized, conjunctive use
:: s. 'ace and ground water, renovation and modernization of irrigation projects, integiated use
: : : : :>r quality and good quality waters, performance evaluation, benchmarking and water
': ~- : irrigation systems.
Systematic policy focus and administrative initiatives, imperative for achieving the high
.5:£ - :a-d of water use efficiency in irrigation sector could be; revision of the State Irrigation Acts
:: s-s...re users' participation, legislation to protect and prevent encroachm~nt of all water
!: _: es I ith effective measures to stop unauthorized use of water, linking central assistance to
- ---: a and institutional reforms, encouraging private sector participation, rationalization of
:::e- -a'es, demand management by creating awareness , increased awareness towards
,,:::::e- -elated ecological issues, bridging the knowledge gap to enable decision making,
:-e3.-- ij effective linkage among various Govt. agencies as well as NGO's associated with the
',2:e- ~esou rces development and management. etc. Any gaps in the knowledge base required
: - - :a--l ing out above activities wlll have to be filled by systematic R&D efforts in respective
e :loS.
Domestic Water Supply sector
Thrust on water conservation in domestic supply sector will have twin benefit of saving
of ~';ater over and above the sal:ing in cost required for treatment and for supply to far off
places. Beside preventing wastage, there is a scope for managing with reduced supply. Some
111

of the measures for improving efficiencies in the domestic water resources management could
be; proper maintenance and improvement in supply from the mains and control on leakages
and unaccounted use. It is estimated that with proper & timely maintenance, loss due to
leakages could be brought down to 12 percent to 15 percent of supply. Besides, demand
management through conservation measures like artificial ground water recharge and rain
water harvesting, public awareness and participation , appropriate pricing, reuse of water .etc
will help in water conservation. Use of treated effluents, in place of Wtered water for horticulture
and gardening, reuse of potable water waste for meeting non potable water requirement will
have to be made mandatory for large & commercial establishments. Fitting of waste-not taps on
public places to avoid wastage .of water and water-efficient systems for flushing should be
encouraged. Water audit should be carried out by the water supply agencies to detect unusual
leakages / unauthorized use and appropriate remedial measures will have to be taken for
achieving higher level of efficiencies in water use.
Industrial sector
·' InoiJstry, being one of the major users of water, needs to practice water conservation.
Substantial water savings can be obtained by introducing water saving technologies, treatment,
reuse of wastewater, setting up norms for water budgeting and changing industrial processes.
R&D ~ffort in this direction should be encouraged .
Other Uses
The dry cooling tower technique is one of the water saving methods in Thermal and
NuClear Plants. The recyCling cost which is presently higher than cost of water treatment, may
work out less in future as cost of waste water treatment is going up. Hydro-power is renewable
in nature and promotes conservation of non-renewable fossil fuels. I'n hydro-power sector/
projects, hardly any water is being consumed except negligible consumption mainly by way of
evaporation losses. For an efficient and optimal. operation of a power system, an optimal
hydro/thermal mix (40:60) is considered necessary and efforts should be made to take up /
complete hydro projects at a faster pace. Pump storage schemes should be considered to
meet peaking requirements.
CONCLUSION
To meet the future water requirements of different sectors, there is an urgent need for
water conservation and improving water use efficiencies in all sectors of its use.
The information available on irrigation efficiency obtained in various major and
medium projects is very scanty. However, the average efficiency obtained are estimated to be
of the order of 35 per cent to 40 per cent and is considered to be low. There is a need to
initiate systematic studies to know irrigation efficiencies being achieved in some of the irrigation
projects. Irrigated agriculture, being the major consumer is to be the thrust area for achieving
high level of efficiencies. Increase in irrigation efficiencies by achievable 20 percent alone can
generate deemed additional resource equivalent to the present utilization by all the other
. sectors. For improving efficiency of water use in domestic sector all measures for reducing
water losses including water audits, mass a"Yareness programmes, water pricing etc. will need
to be taken up and pursued vigorously. Further, adoption of most appropriate technology to
ensure efficient use of cooling and process water apart from sound maintenance practices
including leakage control is necessary for water conservation in Industrial/Energy sectors.
It is necessary to draw an action plan for achieving higher standards of efficiencies in
water use in various sectors and implement the same with the co-operation and involvement of
all concerned viz., Government agencies, Non-Governmental Organizations and the Stake
holders by establishing appropriate linkages with govt. and non-govt. agencies.
IV

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR IMPROVING EFFICIENCIES IN WATER USE
The per capita availability of fresh water in the World is continuously decreasing.
It is reported that in the World about 70 percent of total water resources developed are
used for irrigation, 23 percent for industries and the balance is used by the domestic
sector. About 60 percent to 70 percent of water used in domestic sector is returned as
waste water. Substantial quantities of water used by industries is also returned. To meet
the increased food requirements of the global population, there is constant pressure for
increase in food production. Since, agricultural productivity depends on availability of
water, there is increased demand of water for irrigated agriculture. On the other hand,
due to increased demand of water for other sectors, quantum available for irrigation
sector is getting. reduced. So, for meeting the increased irrigation demand, it is
necessary to economise the use of water for irrigation by adopting improved
technologies and improving the water use efficiencies. For our country also, similar
situation exists. It is estimated that population of the country may stabilize at around
1600 million by the year 2050. The ~vailable utilizable water resources would be
inadequate to meet the future water needs of all sectors. Therefore, to meet the
challenge of water shortage, it is imperative to use the water efficiently and increase
the utilisable qupntity by all possible means. Vigorous efforts would be needed by all
concerned including people from all walks of life in water conservation effort. This need
was amply reflected in the appeal of Hon'ble P.M. of India made in the Fresh Water
Year, while declaring water conservation as a national mission. He exhorted every
citizen of the country to collectively address the problem of water shortage, which is
assuming crisis proportions, by conserving every drop of water and suggested for '
conducting water audit for all sectors of water use. The year 2003 was also observed as
a fresh water year in the country.
IRRIGATION SECTOR
It is estimated that currently about 83 percent of deve'loped water resources is
used by Irrigation sector alone in our country. This may get progressively reduced to
about 75 percent in future, due to increased demand of other sectors. Being, major
cons·umer of water, even a marginal improvement in the efficiency of water use' in
irrigation sector will result in saving of substantial quantity of water which can be utilised
eit er for extending irrigated area or for diverting the saving to other sectors of water
5e.
Irrigation projects, in general, are under performing due to inadequate system
aintenance mainly on account of financial constraints. This could be attributed to low
Na:er rates and revenue recovery from farmers. Even though it is well recognised and
:-e-commended that water charges may have to be so fixed so as to meet at least annual
::sts of operation and maintenance in order to make the system self -sustainable, this
as not been implemented in many states. This affects the planned efficiency of
~-:-ojects and their performance. It is imperative to devise a mechanism for proper water
rates and recovery of water charges. Various other measures, which may have to be
aken to improve the overall irrigation efficiency of projects (which is currently as low as
35 to 40 percent in general) are being dealt in subsequent chapters.

1.3 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY SECTOR
For domestic water supply sector, a national Water Supply and Sanitation
Programme was introduced in the country way back in 1954. An Accelera ed Rural
Water Supply Programme was started in 1972-73. Under these programmes central
financial assistance was provided to the states for implementation of scherr.es. The
programme was given a mission approach when Technology Mission on Dri ki g ,'later
and Related Water Management, also called National Drinking Water Mission was
introduced in 1986. This was renamed as Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission
in 1991 .
The major draw back or problem faced in the sector are unequal distribution,
losses due to leakage and wastage by consumers etc. Water audit is very necessary as
treatment costs are high . The audit he'lps in determining amount of water lost in the
distribution system due to leakages etc and will be an important step towards taking
remedial measures and improving efficiencies. As treatment costs are high in respect of
domestic water supply, it is necessary to reduce losses and hence effect saving .
The quantity of domestic water requirement as per the norms prescribed
separately for the rural and urban areas by the respective Ministries also need to be
maintained at the prescribed levels, with a view to conserve water. Measures including
water audits for reducing water losses, appropriate water pricing and metering etc will
need to be taken up and vigorously implemented to improve the efficiencies in domestic
sector. Mass awareness is an important aspect and efforts to educate the people about
water conservation should be given due support.
1.4 INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
Increase in population and standards of living has resulted in rapid strides in
industrial development. With open market policy and multinational companies settlng up
their industrial units in the country either in collaboration or independently, the industrial
requirement of water is increaSing at a faster pace. Most of the industrjal production
processes require large quanmies of water. The quantity of water used in industries
depends on the raw materials used and processing technology followed . Therefore,
adoption of most appropriate technology to ensure efficient use of cooling and process
water, apart from leakage control and pricing to ensure full cost recovery is necessary
for water conservation. Further, there is need for proper water audit also for water use in
industrial sector. The industrial efnuents are a major source of water pollution. Thus
treatment of industrial waste water to the permissible limits and its reuse would be
necessary to prevent contamination of surface and ground water resources. With the
availability of fresh water getting reduced and quality of water becoming poorer and '
poorer, a close monitoring and stringent enforcement of regulations for water use in
industrial sector, along with water audit are the need of the hour to achieve the objective
of improving the water use efficiency.
1.5 POWER SECTOR
There is a vast potential for hydropower generation in the country and its
development is being taken up at a faster pace, now. The generation of hydroelectric
power does not involve any consumptive use, except for the reservoir evaporation.
However, there is a consumptive use in thermal power development, where boiler
requirement and cooling water is required . The water needs in the energy sector is
mainly met from the surface water resources. There is need to maintain the water use
to the prescribed standards and for improving the efficiency, resulting in water
conservation and saving. To meet peaking power demands, pumps storage plants offer
great scope for saving of water due to recycling.
2

1.6 OTHE,R USES

The other miscellaneous water requirements for water are for recreation,
navigation and for maintaining minimum flow of rivers for ecological purposes. However,
.these are mostly non consumptive uses. The conservation measures taken in other
sectors of water use would result in increased efficiency and saving of waters which
would be available not only for increased uses in respective sectors but also for other
uses as enumerated above.
1.7 NEED OF ACTION PLAN FOR IMPROVING EFFICIENCIES IN WATER USE
To meet the future water requirements of various sectors, there is an urgent need '
for water conservation and improving water use efficiencies in al'i sectors of its use. The
National Water Policy (2002) also lays stress on conservation of water. It has been
stipulated therein that efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be
optimised and an awareness of water as scarce resource should be fostered. This is
necessary to meet the basic need of drinking and domestic water, food for the vast
population of the country and for restoring the deteriorating eco-system. For achieving
this, it is imperative that an action plan for increasing efficiency of water use in all
.sectors is drawn and implemented with the cooperation and involvement of all
concerned viz Government agencies, non-Governmental organisations and the stake
holders. Requisite policy measures and administrative changes and support as may be
necessary may have to be provided by the Government and efforts in this direction by
other NGOs should be encouraged.
-. .'
A sectorwise review of present performance and measures required for
improving the efficiencies along with suggestions and recommendations a'i'"€,discussed
in the succeeding chapters.
.,.

CHAPTER 2
CRITICAL REVIEW OF PRESENT LEVEL EFFICIENCY
2.1 INTROSPECTION
The availability of water on annual basis is almost fixed. The per capita water
availability in India at the time of independence was much more than the present availability
and use was also limited. With excess availability of water some inherent habits developed due
to misplaced notion that water is an unlimited resource and it has resulted in wasteful use of
water. However, situation as of now is' bad and likely to become critical in days to come.
Presently, the national annual average per capita availabi'lity is about 1800 Cubic metre (cu.m)
per year and by 2050 the estimated annual per capita avaHabililty of about 11.50 cU.m would
take the country at the threshold of water scarce condition. However, the situation in certain
parts of the country is already critical and it is estimated that by 2050, about 30 percent of the
geographical area and 16 percent of population in the country will be under absolute water
scarcity condition, with water availability of less than 500 cU.m per capita per year. Against the
backdrop of such a situation of impending scarcity and inter sectoral competition on physical
and financial resources, the water resources management needs deep introspection and
undergo a paradigm shift. Taking heed of water's limits together with that of land, and learning
to live with the resources, calls for a major transformation in our relationship with freshwater.
Doing more with less, is the first step along the path towards sustainable water development
and m~nagement. By using water more efficiently, new source of supply is created, in effect.
Irrigation being a major consumer of the water, low efficiencies obtained in the irrigation
sector is a cause of concern. Though improvement in water use efficiencies in irrigation
should be a thrust area, the country can not afford to allow wasteful use of water in other
sectors such as domestic and industrial. Each litre conserv'ed can help to meet new water
demand, With rapid urbanization and industrialization, the demand of water from these sectors
is rising comparatively at much higher rate and it should be our endeavor to achieve high level
of efficiencies in these sectors also. With serious resource crunch putting pressure on fresh
physical development for augmenting availability of water resources, there isa need for
paradigm shift towards efficient management of already developed water resources system
particularly in the river basins which have already harnessed the water potential. In order to
achi~ve equitable economic growth for all round development and poverty alleviation it is
imperative to take stock of the past development efforts, the achievements, shortcomings and
to draw holistic plan for achieving the desired objective of improvement in water use
efficiencies.
2.2 IRRIGATION SECTOR
The country has been able to achieve food security primarily due to systematic and
sustainable irrigation development, by 1980 onwards. Irrigation development in India has been
taking place through a judicious mix of major, medium and minor irrigation schemes depending
on project location, economic viability and environmental consideration for equitable and
'sustainable development As a result of this development, irrigation potential has been planned
to go up to about 101 million hectare (M.ha) by the end of 1999-2000 against 22.6 M.ha at the
time of independence. Food grain production which was a meagre 51 million tonnes (M.T.) at
that time, has increased four fold to about 212 M.T presently. This-has made the country not
only self sufficient, butalso an exporter of the food grains. It has been estimated that as much
as 52 percent of the rise in food grain production has been solely on account of increase in
irrigated area.
4

Inspite of the achievements made 'so far, the country cannot afford to brook
complacency yet as only 38 percent of the cultivated land is irrigated. Further, despite the fact
that productivity in irrigated areas has increased, in general, it is seen that in irrigation systems
without storage back up like Kosi, Gandak etc., such increases are still way below the world ·
standards and even of developing countries like China and Brazil. This has been causing
concern from around 1970. This low productivity, manifests itse f not only through the irrigated
yields being I'ess than what it would be possible to achieve but also in not being able to irrigate
properly the whole of the area planned for irrigation and in not being able to supply the water,in
sufficient quantities and with time~iness, reliabili,ty and equity allover the command. The
problem of equity, timeliness and reliability and the low efficiency in regard to conveyance,
distribution and application of irrigation are considered as a main cause for the low productivity
of irrigated agriculture and also of the low satisfaction level among the irrigated farmers. The
overall efficiency in most irrigation systems is low and in the range of 35 percent to 40 percent.
The main cause of low efficiencies, is observed to be deficiencies in water delivery system due
to poor maintenane, inequitable delivery of water to the fields, lack of on-farm development and
inefficient water management. Further, productivity of irrigated land ranges from around 1.5
tonnes per ha to 4 tonnes per ha for cereal crops as compared to an achievable target of about
5 to 6 tonnes per ha putting additional pressure on water demand for irrigation. Absence of any
meaningful co-ordination of multidisciplinary departments at various levels also results in
wasteful and unlawful use of water, resulting in low system efficiencies & productivity levels.
2.2.1 Present Water Use
The ultimate .irrigation potential of the country through major, medium and minor
irrigation projects has been assessed as 139.9 M.ha by cORventional storage and diversion
works. The cultivable area of the country is estimated to be about 186 M.ha out of which about
142 M.ha is under cultivation. With rise in population and industrialisation putting pressure on
land, it is expected that net cultivated area will stabilise at 140-145 M.ha About 101 M.ha of
irrigation potential has already been planned to be deve'loped by the end of 1999-2000 through
construction of 382 major projects, 1147 medium projects, 146 Extension, Renovation and
Modernisation(ERM) schemes and millions of minor schemes. Total water use in agriculture at
current revel of development is of the order of about 525 BCM which is about 83percent of total
present water use in the country. With this water use, the country is able to produce about 212
M. T of foodgrains which is considered to be sufficient for meeting the foodgrain requirements
of the country for the present level of population beside leaving some extra for export.
2.2.2 Future Water Requirements
The population of the country has already crossed 1000 million and is estimated to
reach a figure between 1500 million and 1800 miilion by the year 2050. It is expected that the
population will stabilise by 2050. The U.N. agencies have put the fi9ure as 1640 million by
then. The National Commission on .Integrated Water Resources Development Plan
(NCIWRDP) has assessed the water demand for irrigation sector considering low and high
variant population of 1346 million and 1581 million as 628 BCM and 807 BCM respectively by
2050. Average food grain consumption at present is about 550 gm per capita per day whereas
the corresponding figures in Chlna and USA are 980 gm and 2850 gm respectively. With
t:opulation growth at about 1.5 per cent per year, the food production should increase by about
2.5 percent annually. The area irrigated should also show an annual growth rate of about 3
percent to match the rising demand of foodgrain. The National Commission (NCIWRDP) has,
earlier expressed a view that per capita economic growth rate of 4.5 percent per year is a
.easonable assumption. As such 284 'kg of foodgrain per head per year or total of 382 rv', .T(low
:lemand) and 449 MT .(high demar:d) foograins will be required by the year 2050. For
assessing the future water demand to meet this requirement of foodgrains, the Commission
has assumed that cropping intensity, which at present is about '135 percent shall inqease to
~ 50-160 percent by 2050. I(rigated area is also likely to increase from about 40 percent to 52
S4 percent of total cropped area by 2050.
5

The National Commission also looked into the possibility of increase in the foodgrain
yields of rainfed and irrigated areas and opined that good probability exists for achieving food
crop yields as given in the following table. This is against present average yield of about 1.0 &
2:33 tonnes per ha for rainfed and irrigated agriculture respectively.
Foodcrop Yield Projections
(in tonnesper ha)
Year "
2010 2025 2050
Rainfed foodcrop yields 1.1 1.25 1.5
Irrigated foodcrop yields 3.0 3.4 4.0
Keeping the above projections in view, the commission has estimated that by 2050 the total
irrigated area will have to be increased to 113 M.ha and 146 m.ha for low demand and high
demand scenario for which water requirement wiJl be of the order of 628 SCM and 807
SCM respectively.
2.2.3 Irrigation EfficienCies
'"
Irrigation efficiency can be defined as the ratio of volume of water . required for
consumptive use by the crop for its growth to the volume of water delivered from the source.
All .the water released at canal head does · not reach root zone of the plant for
consumptive use of the plant. Some water is wasted in conveyance, distribution and
applicatlion in the field, . Irrigation efficiency accounts for losses of water incurred during
conveyance, distribution and application to the field. Various irrigation efficiencies depend
.upon where the losses are taking place and generally comprise of conveyance efficiency,
qistribution efficiency and field application efficiency.
~ Conveyance efficiency
Loss of water in conveyance system is mainly due to seepage and evaporation.
. Convey,ance efficiency is the term used to account for these losses. Conveyance efficiency
can be split up .in two components EC1 and EC2. ECr Conveyance efficiency from canal
head to outlet head and EC2 - Conveyance efficiency (or distribution efficiency) from outlet
to the field. These are defined as under:
.>- Conveyance efficiency
(i) EC1 = Vol. of water made available at outlet head

Vol. Of water released at canal head

(ii)Distribution efficiency EC2 = Vol. of water delivered to the field
Volume of water drawn from the outlet
-
'" Field Application efficiency
When water is applied to the field, part of it evaporates. Other field application losses such
as run Off also takes place. Consumptive use of water is the quantity of water actually used by
plants for their growth. Field application efficiency, takes into consideration the above losses in
application of water.
>- Field application efficiency (Ea) =Vol. of water delivered to the root zone
J Vol. of water.drawn at the field head
6

>- Overall Project Efficiency
The overall project efficiency consider all losses from canal head up to the root zone. It is
defined as follows:
Overall Project efficiency (Ep) = Vol of water deli'ilered to the root zone
Vol.of water released at the canal head
The Overall project efficiency can also be worked out as Ep =EC1 X EC2 X EeL
2.2.4 Status of Irrigation Efficiencies
Ir~igation efficiency mainly depends on'loss of water in conveyance system including
distribution system and in the field. Loss of water in conveyance system is mainly due to
seepage and evaporation. E;aporation loss takes place from the exposed water surface In hot
and dry summer months these losses are maximum but they may seldom exceed about 10
percent of the total conveyance loss. Conveyance and field losses, contributing to overall
irrigation effiCiency from source to field application, vary widely with the extent of lining, type of
strata through which canal system passes, material used and quality of work in the canal lining,
preparation of the field, type of soil, stream size,: method of water application i.e. irrigation
practices in vogue etc.
Some studies have been carried out to have a general idea about the project features
which influence the irrigation efficiencies. General conclusion of these studies were:
• In schemes where the area served by one distributary ranged between 400 ha to
3000 ha, conveyance efficiency was higher than in schemes where this area was
larger or smaller.
• In schemes where the tertiary units were larger than 200 ha, the average
conveyance efficiency was higher than in schemes with tertiary units between 5 and
100ha.
• In sch.emes where the size of flow per farm inlet was more than 50 litre I second, the
distribution efficiency was higher than in schemes where the size of ~low was 50 litre
I second or less.
Some data of the existing Indian projects has been collected and efficiencies observed
in these projects are tabulated below:
51. Particulars ' Observed irrigation efficiencies of projects(in
No. percentagel
I Naza're Maliyad Nirguna Asola , Kalote
Mendha Mokashi
1 Conveyance
efficiency
a) Main canal
b)Distributary/Minor
"
92
79
84
83
85
75
94
75
186
89
c) Field channel
7'
68 64 72 No field
channel
167
f
49 :1Overall conveyance 44 46 70 51
, 1
efficiency(EC) I'
69 ' 83 58 ' 59(Paddy)Fileld Application 772 I
efficiency(Ea) 52(Groundnut)
31 4138 38Project 303
Efficiency(Ep) I'
1
,
7

Some additional information as available in Performance Evaluation reports /
modernization scemes reports, has been reproduced in the following table
S.No I Project Seepage losses in Canal
I system
I (Cusec Rer Million Sq. ft.)
1 I Harsi Canal System (M .P.) 5 to 24 I
2 Sarda Canal System (U.P) 6 to 8
3 I Kaldiya Irrigation Scheme (Assam) 17 to 27
4 Pazhassi Irrigation Project (Kerala) 11 to 21 I I
5 Kangsabatilrrigation Project (W.B) 9 to 70 -
It is observed that such losses are 40 to 50 percent of the discharge at canal head. This
includes 15percent to 20percent in main canal and branches, 10 to 20 percent in distributaries
and 10- 20percent in water courses. In general, it can be said that a considerable amount of
water is lost through evaporation and seepage in the canal system from the head of the canal
up to the distributaries outlet.
National Commission on Integrated Water Resources Development Plan(NCIWRDP)
also tried to compile the data for national level assessment of overall irrigation efficiencies but
they could not come to any conclusion. However, the National Commission opined that 35 to
40 percent efficiency in surface water and 65-70 percent efficiency in ground water will be a
fair approximation.
2.2.5 Review ofPresent Efficiencies
The development of irrigation sector, like a few other development activities has its
share of problems also. A number of irrigation systems, are operating much below their
potential due to poor maintenance, problems of equity, waterlogging , lag in potential created
and utilized etc. , all leading to actual irrigation efficiencies being much less than the achievable
values. This is not to say, that problems of existing il'figation systems can be limited to those
related to irrigation efficiency and equity. At times the water availability itself may be inadequate
or may have become inadequate due to excessive upstream development. The cropping
pattern may have changed from those for which the system was planned. While all these
problems need specific consideration, particular problem which is common to all the systems
and required to be tackled is the low water use efficiency,
The irrigation efficiencies of 35-40 percent in surface water as generally obtained, are
considered to be low. The reasons which contribute towards low values of irrigation efficiencies
can be summarized as under:
i) A large number of major and medium projects could not be completed due to various
_ reasons including thin spread'ing of resources. In many cases headworks were
completed but the canal systems were only partially completed. With deve'lopment
of part command and abundant availability of water as planned for the project, the
head reach farmers starts growing high water consuming crops practically on full
size of their farms with irrigation intensities much higher than planned. They also
tend to over irrigate and indulge in wasteful use of water. The problem is more acute
in large system where full development of command takes 10-20 years. Even after
completion of the project, the head reach farmers continue to draw more water ~ in
pretext of changed cropping pattern depriving tail reach farmers of their share of
water. Some tail end channels, practically do not get any water, resulting in low
water use efficiency.
ii) Excessive losses In conveyance and distribution systems are due to seepage,
evaporation etc. Whereas the evaporation loss is very less, as much as, 40-50
8

percent of water is lost in seepage through main 'canals, branches, distributaries,
minors, water courses and field channels. It is observed that almost half of these
losses occur in field channels.
;ii) Design and operation of the conveyance and distribution systems, is in such a way
that inequity and indiscipline prevail in the command. The systems are designed to
run either at full discharge or at partial discharge. The cross regulators and head
regulators are so designed, that off taking branch can draw full supply even when
the flow in parent channel is having partial' supply. In the secondary system, this
leads to various manipulations in head reaches i.e. head branches take larger share
of the parent channel and much higher shortages are passed on to the lower
branches. So, the operation of the system is fundamentally dependent upon the two
factors, i.e method of water allocation and method .of distribution adopted for the ·
system and water control within distribution system.
iv) Most of the irrigation systems, are today facing twin issues of sub-optimal sector
planning and financial management on the one hand and inadequate maintenance
of the system on the other hand. Efficient water management cannot be achieved
unless the infrastructure for water conveyance and de~ivery system is in a
reasonably good condition. Maintenance of irrigation system is generally neglected,
which leaDS to weed growth, silting of canal system, breaches etc. Situation in some
cases is seen to be so precarious, that even the headworks ,& other regulatory
structures start showing signs of distress. Infrastructure deterioration from
inattentive and absent maintenance regime, is one of the main reasons of wastage
of water and lower value of irrigation efficiency. .
v) The water rates being charged at present, are low and the revenues are only a small
fraction of the amount required for proper maintenance. This adversely affects the
availability of resources with the State Govts. for proper and regular maintenance of
irrigation systems. This consequently leads to deterioration jof system and is
responsible for the poor quality of services. Low water rates also encourage excess
. and wasteful use of water.
vi) Other factors include poor communication facilities in the canal operation system,
absence of control structures etc. Large schemes are. usually subject to large
variations in water demand. While it may be rainin.g in one part of the scheme, t:le
other part may be dry. Besides, during each season , water requirements increases
to reach a peak and then decrease depending on the type of crop grown and the
locations. The pr-esent provisions in the systems do not allow the canal flows to.
quickly adjust with the variations in water demand, some water, therefore, is lost in
the process.
vii) Another grey area is inordinate delay in completion of On-Farm Development
works(OFD works). Out of the irrigation potential of about 101 M.ha created so far,
about 81 M.ha only is being utilized leaving a gap of 20 M.ha of unutilized potential.
Though there are many factors which influence the utilization of created potential,
the prime cause of under utilization is non-completion of field channels, land leveling
and shaping, drainage channels etc.
viii) Other important factor leading to low value of efficiency is lack of involvement of
beneficiaries. Farmers are real stake holders of water use. Though the process of
formation of Water Users Associations (WUAs) and Participatory Irrigation
Management(PIM) started in 1985. the beneficiaries are not involved sufficiently
and effectively in the up-keep of the system and water management ·aspects.
These works are considered to be the responsibility of irrigation department and is
one of the important reasons of getting low efficiency of irrigation in many States.
9

ix) . In initial phase of irrigation development, thrust' was on for creation of irrigation
infrastructure and no efforts were made for providing matching drainage facilities in
the irrigation commands. This has resulted in problem of water logging and salinity
in some of the irriQlation commands. Seepage from conveyance system of the
..irrigation projects, excessive application of irrigation water to crops, lack of
conhmctive use of surface and ground water, poor on farm water management,
deficient maintenance etc ohly added to the problem. Working Group of Ministry of
Water Resources (MOWR) in their report of1991, estimated water logged area and
salinity affected area in command of major and medium irrigation schemes as 2.46
M.ha and 3.3 M.harespectively. Some waterlogged area is reclaimed but the
progress of reclamation is very slow. In addition to waterlogged area, which has
. practically gone out of command and could not be used for crop production, other .
areas where sufficient drainage facilities for effective disposat of sub-surface water
. .have not been provided, also lose fertil.ity, leading to low yields.
x) Inspite of the fact that there is an acute shortage of water, no concerted efforts have
been made to improve water-application t-echniques in the field and age old irrigation
. practices continue to be in vogue. Most of the area in the country is irrigated by
surface application .methods such .. as basin, check basin, bo"rder strip, furrow
irrigation etc. Except for furrow irrigation, adoption of other methods, practically
means flooding of the irrigation f,ields resulting in substantial loss' of water. This
happens as fields are generailly not properly leveled or provided with correct slope
for quick flow of water from one end to another, The application efficiency of these
methods have been found to be only 30 to 50 percent as compared to attainable
level of 60 to 80 percent. . Efficiencies are relatively better in furrow irrigation
methods.
. . . . .
xi) Development and management of water resources still remains with National and
State Govts. The responsibility is spread amongst several institutions, some with '
overlapp'ing jurisdiction. There is a distinct lack of coordination among various ·
agencies involved. . Research efforts in water management are being carried out by
the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Water and Land Management Institutes
of various States, various Agricultural Universities, other Central and State
Research Centres etc. MOWR also funds the research schemes through INCID,
INCH, INCOH etc. Though lot of information might have been generated/colle€ted by
various agencies, there is no meaningful interaction and linkages between various
agencies. The agencies involved i.n the extension services, fail to translate the
research findings to actual field . There is lack of mass awareness programmes and
farmers not realizing the scarcity of water continue to waste water.
2.2.6 Performance Evaluation review
The various reasons for low irrigation efficiencies as reported in performance evaluation
reports I modernization schemes, are gap in potential created and utilized, unreliable and
inadequate water availability, silting, breaches or damages, leakage, seepage, 'weed
growth, lack of control and regulation, over drawal inhead reaches, etc. In the Performance
Evaluation Report of Kaldiya Irrigation Scheme (Assam), it is stated that due to lack of .
maintenance, the " head regulator and cross regulators are found to be in damaged
condition. The canal system has also be-en reported to be damaged. The excessive leakage
in the head reaches and over drawal through outlets has been reported. Tail end is not
getting water in normal course and the water flowing by the 'side of the canal as overland
flow only reaches .the tail ends. In the Performance Evaluation Report of Kanupur Branch
(U.P.) of Lower Ganga Canal Project it is mentioned that "there is hardly anytutlet on the
Ajeet ganj minor arid the farmers were seen taking water by cutting the banks. The suppfies
in Sheorajpur distributary are regulated by using planks and no other control structure exists
due to which effective·control is hardly poss·ible. The distributary is in a pitiable condition.
10

The section is silted and has become narrow at places. Most of the outlets had been
removed I tampered with and water was flowing uncontrolled. The farmers use pumping
sets to lift water directly from distributary. In head portion of Harnu minor, channel bed of
the canal is covered with weeds."
2.2.7 Status of Water use/losses in some other countries
ICID initiated studies of water saving practices adopted by various countries. As per the
information contained in their document "The Watsave Scenario", countries like Australia,
Cyprus, .Ghina,Egypt, Italy, Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand, Turkey and USA, have conducted
surveys to monitor losses and water use. The reasons for system level losses are attributed to
(i) improper irrigation system, (ii) Inefficient distribution of water, and (iii) Farmers lack of
training and knowledge. The following is the data about losses in canal systems in some of the
countries. '
Water losses in canals
Country Lined channels
(Loss per annum)
Unlined channels
(Losses per annum)
China 20-30 percent 40-50 percent
Pakistan 2.7 BCM 22BCM
Egypt 3percent 20eercent
France 25000 cU .m 2.7 M.cum.
South Africa 1.5 lIs per Th.cum 30percent
The reasons of excess water use or losses and preferred irrigation methods as reported

by some of the countries have been summarized as under:

. Australia: The reasons for excess use or losses of water at farm level have been reported as
undesirable flooding; irrigation layout; design and management; ground water accession; and
low water price. The preferred irrigation methods are trickle and micro irrigation, improved
flood irrigation management and irrigation scheduling
China: Losses from field ditches, lower uniformity and efficiency due to undulating micro
topography, improper scheduling and management have been cited as main reasons of low.
efficiencies at farm ,level. The preferred irrigation methods are small border or short furrow,
improved design and management of surface irrigation with land leveling and sprinkler or micro
irrigation.
Egypt: Flood irrigation practices, neglect of night irrigation, unofficial cultivation of rice, lack of ..
knowledge and insufficient farmers' participation are stated to be the main reasons for low
efficiencies. The preferred irrigation methods are improved distribution and main canal
operation, expansion of telemetry system and land leveling and night irrigation.
Israel: The reason for excess use or losses of water at farm level have been reported as
leakage and unaccounted use. The preferred irrigation methods are pressure irrigations, border
irrigation.
Nigeria: Pakistan: Seepage through canals, water courses and fields, high evaporation
and uncontrolled water supply to fields are reported to be the main reasons for low .
efficiencies. The preferred irrigation methods are: Furrow irrigation, sprinkler, drip (for
orchards in Quetta valley)
Turkey: The reasons for excess use or losses of water at farm level, are reported as losses
due to conveyance, high evaporation losses, percolation during irrigation. The preferred .'
irrigation methods are sprinkler, drip and long line border irrigation.
11

As per a study sponsored by FAO, it is estimated that on an average overall water use
efficiency of irrigation in developing countries is only about 38 percent. Table given below ·
shows wateruse efficiency in 1998 and 2030 (predicted) in 93 developing countries.
Year Sub-Saharan
Africa
Latin
America
Near East &
North Africa
South
Asia
East
Asia
All
Countries
Water use efficiency in Irrigation percent
1998
33 25 40 44 33 38
2030 37 25
~
53 49 35 42
Global water strategies tend to fOCL!s on the need to increase agricultural water use
efficiency, reduce wastage and free large amounts of water for other, more productive uses as
well as sustaining the environmental conditions of rivers and lakes. While there is scope to
improved use of water in agriculture, these ilJ1~rovements can only be made slowly and are
limited by several considerations. First, there ", large areas of irrigated agriculture located in
humid tropics where water is not scarce and whffi'e improved effioiency would not result in any
gain in water productivity. Second, water use efficiency is usually computed at the level of the
farm or irrigation scheme, but most of the water that is not used by the crops returns to the
hydrological system and can be used further downstream. In these conditions, any
improvement in water use efficiency at field level translates into limited improvement in overall
efficiency at the level of the river basin. Finally, different cropping systems have different
potential for improvement in water use efficiency. Typical,l,y, tree crops and vegetables are well
adapted to the use of localized, highly efficient irrigation technologies, while such technologies
are not adapted to cereals or other crops.
2.2.8 The Basin Efficiency Concept
The efficiency discussed in the preceding paras relates to a 'system or a project'. Any
loss of water in conveyance system and in field application is taken as a contributor to lowering ·
of efficiency. While seeping water can be counted as a net loss in areas with poor quality
ground water, it can be retrieved for irrigation in areas having good quality ground water. This
water may be withdrawn by farmers at their convenience as and when needed . .Water
available for reuse whether in the same command(as in case of conjunctive use or an
integrated system which allows reuse of regeneration) or in other downstream areas, is not a
loss. Only that part of the regeneration which cannot be used because say there are, no
downstream projects or possibilities, would be a loss.
There are three major implications of this concept:
i) Where recycling is possible, pollution control is a compulsory precautionary
requirement of increased use of water supply.
ii) The amount of actual water supply is likely to be underestimated if the recycling
process is not accounted for.
iii) Recycling does not create any new water. If the original withdrawaf Cqn be used witli!
100 percent efficiency, the same irrigation needs would be met as those,
theoretically possible through numerous recycling .
There are two distinct paths of increasing effectiveness, one by improving the system
or project efficiency towards 100 percent, and the other by allowing increase of return flows
(with low efficiency), but of effectively and repeatedly using these return flows. The optimum
combination of these two paths is' what one needs to attempt. All usable returns and their use
any where are accounted for and the resultant basin efficiency can be computed as total use of
12

water from an initial diversion divided by the amount of water in initial diversion. Such basin
efficiency is likely to be much higher than average project efficiency of 35 percent to 40
percent and may often reach above 70 percent in water scarce region. While system
irrigation efficiencies are no doubt important indicators of proper use of the system waters, they
may not necessarily, fully depict the overall usability of the basin waters.
2.3 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY SECTOR
Safe water is essential for sustenance of life. Drinking water IS a basic need and this has
been well recognized by the Government of India. The National Water Policy (2002), gives
overriding priority to drinking water over other uses and inclusion of a provision for it, was made
mandatory in all water development projects. It states that adequate safe drinking water
facilities should be provided to the entire population both in urban and in rural areas; irrigation
and multipLi"rpose projects should invariably include a drinking water component, wherever
there is no alternative source of drin.king water; drinking water needs of human beings and
animals should be the first charge on any available water.
Domestic use comprises the whole gamut of uses viz. cooking, washing, gardening, for
livestock, etc. beside drinking water for human & livestock. The objective of a public protected
water supply system is to supply safe and clean water in adequate quantity, conveniently and
as economically as possible. The planning may be required at national level for tne country as
a whole, or for the state or region or community. Though the responsibility of the various
organizations incharge of planning of water supply system in each of these cases is different,
they still have to function within the priorities fixed by the national and state governments,
taking into consideration, the areas to be provided with water supply and the most economical
way of doing it, keeping in view the overall requirements of the entire region.
In the development of water sources for domestic use, the most important and
challenging issue is, that of sustainability of source and quality. Lot of waste water is generated
specially in urban areas. 60 percent to 70 percent of it flows back to already shrinking water
bodies in untreated form. This results in massive pollution of fresh water resources. In rural
areas majority of the population is relying on ground water. This resource is depleting fast due
to increased and unregulated withdrawals for irrigation. The water quality problems are also
getting aggravated due to excess fluoride, arsenic and brackishness in certain areas and
intrusion of salinity in coastal areas. With limited availability of funds, management issues have
now thus become more critical than development issues. With demand for safe water on
continuous rise, there is an utmost need for achieving high level of efficiencies by controlling
leakages in the distribuHon systems, preventing unaccounted use, proper maintenance,
recycling and reuse etc. Considerably more satisfaction and benefit can be obtained from the
present systems if managed efficiently. At the same time the demand has to be controlled
through awareness of scarcity value of water, efforts involved in supplying potable water and
appropriate pricing etc. '
2.3.1 Present Scenario
Urban Areas
As per the 2001 Census, the total urban population was about 285 million out of the total
population of 1027 million in the country. It is projected that the population will be around 426
million in the urban areas by the year 20'11 . Over the last 50 years, the urban population has
been doubting itself every twenty years. As per 1991 Census, about 65 percent of the urban
population lives in Class-I cities having population more than 1,00,000 and about 30 percent of
this po'pulation lives in slums and squatter settlements, of which, the major concentration is in
metro cities. The balance 35percent lives in class-II to class-VI towns. .
Information collected through surveys have indicated that among the urban households,
58 percent have access to drinking water within their premises while for 40percent, the
13

sources of water is within a distance of 0.5 km. The National Standards target the per capita.
requirement of piped water at ·140 litre per capita per day where underground sewerage is
provided, and 70 to 100 litre per capita per day(lpcd) for cities devoid of underground sewers.
In towns with spot sources or stand posts, the recommended level of supply is 40 Ipcd;
however, the availability in urban slums is only 27lpcd.
According to a survey by National Sample Survey an estimated 70 percent of urban
households reported being served by tap and 21 percent by tubewell or hand pump. 66
percent of urban households reported having their principal source of drinking water within their
premises, while 32 percent had it within 0.2 km. 41 percent had sole access to their principal
source of drinking water which means that 59 percent were sharing public source. 15 percent
of household did not get sufficient drinking water from their principal source between April and
June. May being the worst month. In the aggregates, 91 percent of urban households
reported the quality of drinking water served by their principal sources to be satisfactory. 18
percent reported using some supplementary source of drinking water and 96 percent reported
storing their drinking water. - The centrally sponsored Accelerated Urban Water Supply
Programme(AUWSP) launched in 1993-94, aims at providing water supply to all towns with a
population less than 20,000 as per 2001 censes during tenth Plan.
Rural Areas
Govt of India and State Governments have been trying to provide safe drinking water to
the rural areas ever since inception of the first Fiv~ Year Plan. However momentum to this
initiative was given by launching the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) by
the· Govt of India in 1972-73 to assist the State Governments and Union Territories to
accelerate the pace of coverage of drinking water supply. Subsequently, to give much more
focused attention, this programme was given the mission approach and a Technology Mission
on Drinking Water and related water management called the" National Drinking Water Mission
(NDWM) " was launched in 1986, which was subsequently renamed as the Hajiv Gandhi
National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM) in 1991. Further in order to achieve the goal of
providing safe drlnking water to all habitations by March, 2004 as per the National Agenda for
Governance (NAG), a separate Department of Drinking Water Supply was created in the
Ministry of Rural Development in 1999. Upto the end of November 2001 , 87.89 percent
habitations in the country are having access to adequate water (fully covered) with 40 litres per
capita per day (Ipcd). About 10.85 percent are partially covered and remaining about 20000
habitatiolls are still not covered. In addition to the ARWSP scheme, states are being supported
from 2000-2001, under the rural drinking water component of Prime Minister's Gramodaya
Yojna (PMGY-RDW). A major shift in approach has taken place in water supply and sector
reform approach has been adopted in selected 63 districts in the country on a pilot basis with
total outlay of more than Rs 1800 crore where emphasis is on demand driven, community
participation, and cost sharing by the user groups. The hardware support is being
supplemented by other support programmes like social mobilisation, capacity building, Human
Resource Development (HRD) and Management of Information System (MIS) etc.
2.3. 2 Present And Future Domestic Water Demand
According to the Report of the National Commission for Integrated Water Resources
Development Plan, the present use of water for urban and Rural areas,(considering the year
1997-98) is 30 SCM. The projections for future water demand were worked out by considering
the folio .wln9. norms:
Type of City , Year 2025 Year 2050
Class 1 Cities - 220 Ipcd 220lpcd
Other than Class 1 cities 165 Ipcd 220 Ipcd
Rural 70 Ipcd 150lpcd
14

Further considering the high and low growth scenario of population, the total water
demand for domestic use for rural and urban areas for the year 2025 and 2050 has been
estimated as under:
Water demand Year 2025 Year 2050
Low rate of water requirement 55 SCM 90 SCM
High rate of water re~uirement 62 SCM 111 SCM
2.3.3 Review Of Present Level Of Efficiencies
2.3.3.1 Urban Areas
The major part of the urban supply is met from surface water and partly from ground
water. Many times the water is transferred from long distances either through open
channels/canals or through conduits. In case of open canal systems, the losses are large and
are similar to conveyance losses in irrigation sector as mostly the same system is used for
carrying irrigation as well as domestic water requirements. Due to increasing demand, not only
the quantity of extractable fresh water resources is being depleted but the quality is a/so
deteriorating. Ground waters may be chemically contaminated, for example, due to excessive
fluorides, fotal dissolved solids, iron and manganese and even arsenic in some cases. Due to
over abstraction of ground water for agricultural and industrial uses, this problem isfulrther
aggravated. Surface water bodies, being indiscriminately used for discharge of municipal and
industrial effluents, may have quality parameters which may require adoption of advanced
water treatment process. It has therefore, become essential to initiate measures for effective
and integrated approach for water conservation.
> Poor maintenance and I'ntermittent supply.Poor maintenance and intermittent supply from the mains compels consumers to resort
to collection of water in sumps and over-head tanks. Some of them living in high rise buildings
even install booster pumps directly on the mains. Since these are not also properly maintained
and cleaned periodically, water quality is affected and in order to make the ..Vater potable, filter
systems are installed. Again they are not .also maintained properly and add their own
contamination after a period of time. Thus, in spite of huge public costs in development,
treatment and conveyance and huge private costs in sumps, pumps, boosters, over-head tanks
and water-filters, the result is unsatisfactory supply of good quality water.
> Real & Apparent losses
In domestic water supply there are two types of losses, rea~ and apparent. Real losses
include water lost through leakage of distribution systems, service connections and storage
tanks (including over-flow). Apparent losses include meter and record inaccuracies and
unauthorized water uses, such as theft and unauthorized connections. From efficiency point of
view, authorised un-metered uses can be considered a special type of lost water. However,
they result in loss in revenue and so should be estimated carefully. The actual losses in-the
system are not precisely known. Investigations suggest that due to systems being old and .
poor maintenance of the system in cities, the loss on account of water through leakages in
mains, communication and service pipes and valves and unaccounted water go upto
approximately 50percent of the total flow in the distribution system. About 80percent of the
leakage occurs in house service connections because of corroded and choked pipes, couplings
and other connections; whereas only 20 percent is due to leakage in mair i; ipes
The Ministry of Urban Development, with the help of the National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), conducted studies on leaks in water distribution in 13
15

cities including Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. It was observed that about 17 to 44 percent of the
total flow in the distribution system was lost on account of leakages in mains, communication
and service pipes and leaking valves. In terms of per capita supply, this works out to 16 to 92
Ipcd. About 82 per cent of the leakage occurred in house service connections is due to
corroded pipes, couplings, ferrules and disused connections. The remaining 18 percent
occurred due to leakage in main pipes.
2.3.3.2 Rural Areas
Drinking water for rural households is facing increasing competition from irrigation.
Approximately 90 per cent of India's rural population rely on shallow or deep groundwater
aquifers for drinking water. The recent expansion of the agricultural sector has swelled the
demand for ground water based irrigation. This has led to depletion of groundwater resources,
r~sulting in the need to replace dried up sources of drinking water. While on the aggregate,
only an estimated 30 to 35 per cent of the potential groundwater resources are being exploited,
increasingly more areas at regional and local levels are facing a scarcity of ground water for
domestic uses.
Ground water is an unregulated resource in our country with no price tag. The cost of
construction of a groundwater abstraction structure is the only investment. In most areas,
groundwater is declining because the rate of withdrawal exceeds the annual recharge. Supply
side rpanagement of water resources is very important for conserving this vital resource for a
balanced use. Without a change in Government policy and intervention, the situation is like'ly to
deteriorate even further. . .
2.4 INDUSTR'IAL SECTOR
Almost every industry consumes water in their processes and utilities. Water Resources
Systems are required to feed the Industrial water demand also. Efficient use of water in
industrial sector, therefore, has a bearing on the efficiencies of Water Resources systems. In
some of the industrial areas, organized surface water supply schemes are either not available
or not viable. This has also resulted in rampant use of underground water reserves resulting in
tremendous stress on available water quality and water table. Under such circumstances, the
industries need to be relocated to meet the water requirements but the actual requirement
depends upon the type of industry and the method of production. Though the water
requirement of the industries used to be very small compared to other sectoral demands in
earlier years, the rapid industrialisation has changed the scenario. As industries are location
specific, the demand on water is also location specific. Thus, certain places have heavy
demands on water. With the quality of water becoming poor, availability of fresh water being
scarce and statutory environmental regulations becoming more stringent, optimisation in use of
water by industry demands a closer monitoring.
2.4.1 Present And Future Demand Scenario
There are no fixed norms for water demand for industries but rather a range of values
determined by the technology used, selection of plant and process, practice adopted for
providing maximum recycling to reduce demand and pollution, etc. The industries requiring,
considerable quantity of water for their production can be broadly classified as small scale
industries, chemicals and petrochemicals, steel, paper, fertilizer, textile, food processing, coal
building, non-ferrous metals, sugar, cement and automobile. The water intensive industries in
the small scale sector belong to food items, hosiery and garments, paper product and printing,
chemical and chemical .products, iron and steel industry etc. When industrial demand is
concentrated in specific locations, heavy pOint loads are created on available water resources.
The water demand for all of the seventeen identified water ·intensive Indian industries
based on the minimum per unit water consumption figure and production figure for the base
year 1997 (considered as present use). has been assessed as 22 SCM by the National
16

Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRD). Estimation of future
demand of water is difficult as there is no specific plan for industrial development. The
projected water requirement for the next 25-50 years based on the industrial growth rate of
Ninth Five Year Plan and future production figures of various industries has been worked out by
the National Commission as 70 BCM and 103 BCM for the years 2025 and 2050 respectively.
Since these consumption figures are considered to be the maximum demand and there is likely
to be lot of technology upgradation with the adoption of efficient methods and use of water
conservation practices by way of low cost no waste technologies, the National Commission
recommended adoption of lower figures viz. 67 SCM and 81 SCM for the years 2025 and 2050
respectively.
2.4.2 Review Of Present Level Of Efficiencies
Historically water availability has been a major factor for locating industries. Also under
the present liberalized scenario of the country, there is no control on selecting a proper site for
industries, rather, the location depended on the proximity to resources and infrastructure,
markets, ports, availability of skilled manpower etc. Under the existing system there is hardly
any control on use of water and there are no compulsions on adopting water efficient
procedures. The industrial plants in our country consume about 2 to 3.5 time more water per
unit of production compared to similar plants operating in other countries. There is thus an
urgent need to review the issues and make the systems more effident
2.5 OTHER USES
2.5.1 Energy Sector
• Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants
Normally, water is drawn for thermal and nuclear power stations from the rivers canals
and tanks. The cooling water system could either be direct cooling system for condenser i.e.

. without cooling towers where a substantial quantity of water is returned back to the source or

an indirect cooling system i.e, with cooling towers which is a dosed circuit system and all the

make up water drawn from the source ultimately becomes consumptive. The Nuclear Power

Stations handle muGb large quantities of cooling water for condenser and other auxiliaries as .
also for the heat transpqrt system between the reactor and the steam generator.
On an average co'ilsumptive water requirement of thermal power units, works out to
about 3 to 4.5 cusecs per 100 MW with once through system pond cooling systems and 5 to
6.5 cusecs per 100 MW with cooling tower system. The Central Electricity Authority has
worked out net consumptive water requirements for the eXisting thermal power plants in the
country ·on the basis of total installed capacity as on January, 1998. As per the information
generated, the water requirements for the thermal plants as on January, 1998 has been
worked out as 2 BCM. The water requirements for the thermal plants likely to be
commissioned by the end of 11 th Five Year Plan i.e. 2012 AD have been worked out as 5 SCM.
Considering 9 percent annual growth of demand of energy, the water requirements at the end
of 2025 AD and at the end of 2050 AD for thermal power plants, gas turbines and nuclear
power stations shall be of the order of 15 BCM and 130 BCM respectively.
For thermal and nuclear power plants, the water requirement should be based on plant
capacities and cooling water arrangements. A distinction may also be made between
consumptive and non-consumptive uses.
Hydropower ,
River valley projects are an important element of optimum and integrated-water resource
development planning. Large multipurpose storages provide benefits of irrigation, hydropower,
flood control and water supply. In some cases hydropower competes with other uses such as
irrigation or water supply, while in others it becomes a by-product of other priority uses. Thus,
17

management of hydropower is necessary in the context of long term and sustainable availability
of water.
2.5.2 Minimum Flow Requirement, Recreation, Aquatic Life etc
Maintenance of minimum flow in river has also to be considered as a water use since it
restricts the quantity of water that can be diverted for other uses. Necessity for maintaining
minimum flow may arise out ' of the necessity to maintain water quality, river regime,
maintenance of river eco system or other publ'ic necessities such as bathing etc, The quantity
will vary according to river regimes.
Recreational activities which require direct 'use of water include boating, swimming,
water skiing and fishing. For such uses, water should be of sufficiently good quality. Reservoir
sites are sometime selected keeping in mind the possible recreational aspects. The recreation
requires a certain range of water level to be maintained in the reservoir.
Water bodies are natural habitats for aquatic life. In planning of water resources
development projects, due consideration needs to be given to the development of fish and
other forms of aquatic life. The irrigation and flood releases from the reservoirs should also be
favourable to fish culture. .
18

CHAPTER 3

MEASURES FOR IMPROVING EFFICIENCIES OF WATER

RESOURCES SYSTEMS

3.1. I,MPROVING '{lATER USE EFFICIENCIES ~ MUST FOR SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT

Measures to conserve water and use it more efficiently are now the most economically
and environmentally sustainable water demand and supply options. There is a need for water
conservation, not only to restore the fast deteriorating eco-system of the country but also to
meet the inevitable emergency of shortage for even drinking and domestic water in near future.
Water conservation and its efficient use are the two major constituents of water management.
The National Water Po.licy, 2002 also lays stress on conservation of water. It has been
stipulated that efficiency of utilization in all the diverse uses of water should be optimized and
an awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered. Optimal utilization of
developed water resources, and demand side management through mass awareness should
be two important components of strategy for management of water resources systems~ What
is needed is to ensure the most productive use of water with minimum environmental
perturbation. One way to ensure rapid sustainable development is to attempt highest
standards of efficiency in water use. Achieving high water use efficiency is thus the first step
along the path towards sustainable water development and management. It should be our
endeavor to achieve the low demand scenario for which it is imperative that considerably higher
level of efficiency is brought about in water use in all the sectors.
In so far as irrigation sector is concerned, the efficiency obtained are generaHy of the
order of 35 to 40 percent in surface water and 65 to 70 percent in ground water. These are
considered to be very low and there is a great scope of improvement. The National
Commission has assumed that it should be possible to achieve 50 and 60 percent efficiency in
surface water irrigation and 72 and 75 percent efficiency in ground water irrigation by 2025 and
2050 respectively. However, challenges in the process of increasing the efficiencies of water
resources systems are many, and have to be met through systematic policy focus;
administrative initiatives; enacting suitable legal instruments for ensuring participation and
cooperation of various sections of society; devising appropriate economic and financial
instruments to facilitate proper and sufficient flow of funds for water resources developments;
. bridging the knowledge gap to enable decision making; and appropriate social changes for
involvement of all stakeholders in water resources development and management.
In the domestic water sector the loss of water on account of leakages in mains,
communication and service pipes and valves is approximately 30 to 40 percent of the total flow
in the distribution system. By reducing these leakages the wastages could be brought down to
10-12 percent of the supply. The industrial plants in our countries consume about 2 to 3.5 times
more water per unit of production compared to similar plants operating in other countries.
There is an urgent need and scope to make the systems more efficient and operate with
reduced quantity of water. Effective legislations needs to be brought out and enforced for
treatment of domestic waste and industrial effluent discharge and its reuse so as to achieve
high level of efficiencies in water use in these sectors also.
3.2 . IRRIGATION SECTOR
Agriculture has the dominant demand on water and it will continue to pre-dominate for a
long time. As of now irrigation sector'consumes as much as about 83percent of the total water
use. With increasing demand from other competing sectors it is estimated that availability of
/
19

water for irrigation sector is likely to reduce progressively to about 70 percent to 75 percent in
future. For meeting country's need for food grains, the water demand for irrigation for the year
2050 has been estimated by the National Commission to be around 628 BCM in low demand
scenario and 807 BCM' in high demand scenario. These demands have been computed
considering expected enhanced level of efficiencies of 60 percent in surface and 75 percent in
ground water by year 2050 against present efficiencies of 35 percent to 40 percent in surface
.and 65 percent to 70 percent in ground water use. Needless to say that demand will be much
higher if the above values of efficiencies are not achieved by that time and the available water
resources will not be sufficient to meet that demand.. It is, therefore, imperative that
considerably higher level of efficiencies are effected in irrigation water use. Irrigation being
major co'nsumer of water it should be the focus and fore-runner for achieving maximum
conservation in its use. Even a marginal improvement in the efficiency of water use ~n this
area will result in the saving of a large volume of water which can be utilized either for
extending the irr,igated area or for diverting to other beneficial purposes. 1.1 is estimated that
with a 10 percent increase in the present level of water use efficiency, an additional 14 rvlha.
area can be brought under irrigation. Increase in efficienc·ies of the o'rder nf 20percent in
irrigation sector through better crop management and proper assessment and management of
water and land resources alone can generate deemed additional resource equivalent to the
present uHlization by all the other sectors.
There is considerable scope for rationalization and optimization of irrigation demand
which is also likely to have a positive impact on environment. Applying the right quantity of
water at the right time and using right cultivation and irrigation practices can make a lot of
difference and high level of efficiencies can be achieved. Further, reforming Irrigation
Institutions is central to increasing the productivity and the efficiency of irrigation systems in a
transparent and accountable manner with increased participation by the users and the private
sector. Performance evaluation and benchmarking have an important potential to contribute to
improve the services and the efficiency of the operations. Within the general efforts of reforms,
the performance evaluation and benchmarking of the irrigation system, therefore can rvrovide
essential input.
3.2.1 Measures For Improving Efficiency .
Early completion of ongoing projects where large investment have already been made without
appreciable physical achievement, reduction in conveyance losses, proper upkeep of the
conveyance and distribution system through periodic maintenance, applying the right quantity
at right time, effective involvement of farmers in water management, right cultivation and
irrigation practices including increased use of water saving devices like sprinkler and drip,
precision leveling, provision of effective drainage channels, conjunctive use of surface and
ground waters, reuse of seepage waters, recycling of domestic & industrial waste water,
demand management through mass awareness and using water pricing as a tool are some of
the measures for efficient and optimal use of scarce water resources.
3.2.1.1 Early Completion of ongoing Projects
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) was launched by the Government of
India in 1996-97 with a view to help the States in ensuring early completion of ongoing irrigation
projects through Central Loan Assistance (CLA) The AIBP has undergone considerable
changes over the last six years. Its implementation is now linked to the reforms in irrigation
sector. The Government of India has also initiated a Fast Track Programme under AIBP with
effect from 1st February, 2002. The approved major and medium irrigation projects, which will ·
be completed in one .year are entitled to get 100 percent CLA under the Fast Track
Programme of AIBP.
As per the modified guidelines of the programme with effect from the year 2002-2003,
the Reforming States under general category, which agree to revise their water rates so as to
20

recover full O&M cost within a period of 5 years will get CLA in the ratio 4: 1 (Centre: State, )
instead of existing 2:1 and under special category in the ratio 1:0 (Centre: State, )
3.2.1.2 Lining of Conveyance system
Loss of water in the conveyance system is mainly on account of seepage. However, all
the seeping water should not be counted as a loss. In fact it adds to the ground water and is
available for extraction as and when required . It can also be collected and reused. However,
in areas of poor quality ground water the seeping water will also be wasted and should be
minimized . Further in drought prone areas efforts should be made to maximize the use of
surface water. Lining of canal network should be done selectively based on these factors
together with economic considerations. The lining should preferably be done by using locally
available material as this will keep the cost low. In area of water scarcity the Polyethylene Films
like LoPE/HoPE can also be considered as they are more impermeable as compared to
conventional methods. These films have long life provided they are protected from puncturing
by an adequate cover of earth or brick tile lining . During execution of Punjab Irrigation Project,
the seepage losses were observed on a number of distributaries/minors. The seepage rates on
an average were observed to be 5.0 Cusec and 1.0 Cusec per million sq ft of wetted surface
for unlined and conventi.onally lined distributaries respectively. For polythene lined distributaries
average seepage rate was observed to be 0.15 Cusec per million sq ft of wetted area.
Seepage rates for unlined branch canals on an average worked out as 6.00 Cusec per mi~lion
sq ft of wetted surface. For double layer tile lining the average seepage rate was 0.23 Cusec
per million sq ft.
3.2.1.3 Operation and Maintenance
The construction of projects is not an end by itself. Equally important is the efficient
operation and maintenance of project. However, the maintenance of most of the irrigation
projects has been far from satisfactory. The operation and maintenance expenditure of
irrigation projects is by and large, being met with from non-plan funds of the State Government.
The practices presently being followed in aHocation of grants for O&M of irrigation projects vary
from state to state and in some of the cases even from project to project within the same state.
No definite norms for allocation of operation and maintenance grants for individual projects are
practiced . Moreover, funds provided are many a times just sufficient to meet the salaries of the
work-charge staff engaged on the system for its operation and maintenance. .It is estimated
that about 70 to 80percent of the O&M cost comprised of the wages and salaries of the staff.
Funds allocated for O&M being grossly inadequate, it is necessary that . whole or substantial
part of receipts from the irrigation projects be earmarked for O&M. The O&M cost needs to be
reassessed every five years. lin addition to normal maintenance, an amount of 20 percent
equivalent of O&M cost should be allowed to take care of special repair costs. The salary and
expenditure on staff for O&M should be limited to 20percent of the fund required as per the
norm. To arrive at the actual cost of works in the O&M of created assets, there is need to take
up pilot schemes in representative irrigation systems.
3.2.1.4 Appropriate Water Pricing
There exist a wide difference between working expenses and gross receipts in respect
of different states. The working expenses range from Rs. 6926/- per ha. in Maharashtra to Rs.
249/- per ha. in Orissa. The recovery of working expenses through the gross receipt is
showing a declining trend. From 64percent in 1974-75, the percentage of recovery of working
expenses through gross receipts declined to 34percent in 1986-87 and further to 13percent
(working expenses including interest on capital cost from 1987-88 onwards) during 1993-94.
This trend resulted in a loss of Rs. 3124 crore during 1993-94. There are wide variations in .
water rate structures across the states. The main reason for low returns is that whereas the
construction as well as maintenance cost has substantially gone up, it has not been matched
with corresponding upward revisions in water rates which have remained abysmally low over
21

EFFICIENCY OF WATER RESOURCES SYSTEM WRD - 2004

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