Gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood occurs by diffusion, as will be discussed in the next chapter. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs passively, according to their concentration differences across the alveolar-capillary barrier. These concentration differences must be maintained by ventilation of the alveoli and perfusion of the pulmonary capillaries.
Alveolar ventilation brings oxygen into the lung and removes carbon dioxide from it. Similarly, the mixed venous blood brings carbon dioxide into the lung and takes up alveolar oxygen. The alveolar Image not available. and Image not available. are thus determined by the relationship between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary perfusion. Alterations in the ratio of ventilation to perfusion, called the Image not available., will result in changes in the alveolar Image not available. and Image not available., as well as in gas delivery to or removal from the lung.
Alveolar ventilation is normally about 4 to 6 L/min and pulmonary blood flow (which is equal to cardiac output) has a similar range, and so the Image not available. for the whole lung is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2. Image not available. However, ventilation and perfusion must be matched on the alveolar-capillary level, and the Image not available. for the whole lung is really of interest only as an approximation of the situation in all the alveolar-capillary units of the lung. For instance, suppose that all 5 L/min of the cardiac output went to the left lung and all 5 L/min of alveolar ventilation went to the right lung. The whole lung Image not available. would be 1.0, but there would be no gas exchange because there could be no gas diffusion between the ventilated alveoli and the perfused pulmonary capillaries.
Oxygen is delivered to the alveolus by alveolar ventilation, is removed from the alveolus as it diffuses into the pulmonary capillary blood, and is carried away by blood flow. Similarly, carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveolus in the mixed venous blood and diffuses into the alveolus in the pulmonary capillary. The carbon dioxide is removed from the alveolus by alveolar ventilation. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, at resting cardiac outputs the diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide is normally limited by pulmonary perfusion. Thus, the alveolar partial pressures of both oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined by the Image not available. If the Image not available. in an alveolar-capillary unit increases, the delivery of oxygen relative to its removal will increase, as will the removal ...
Ventilation and Perfusion in different zones of lungs.Gyaltsen Gurung
This powerpoint presentation will make you explore about the Perfusion and Ventilation in different zones of lungs with its co-relation with pulmonary tuberculosis.
Ventilation perfusion ratio (The guyton and hall physiology)Maryam Fida
Ventilation perfusion ratio is :
“The ratio of alveolar ventilation and the amount of blood that perfuse the alveoli”.
FORMULA
It is expressed as VA/Q.
VA is alveolar ventilation
Q is the blood flow (perfusion)
Normal value of ventilation perfusion ratio is about
0.8
VA is 4.2 L /min
Q is 5.5 L/min (Same as Cardiac output)
So VA/Q = 4.2/5.5 = 0.8
If VA becomes zero ratio becomes zero
If Q becomes zero ratio becomes infinite.
If ratio becomes zero or infinite then there is no gaseous exchange. So this ratio indicates the efficiency of gaseous exchange in lungs.
In standing or sitting position this ratio is not uniform in all parts of the lungs.
In standing position, in upper parts of lungs there is almost no blood flow so normally in upper parts of lungs the ratio is higher may be near 3.
In lower part of lungs, there is more blood flow so the ratio is decreased may be 0.6.
In certain diseases the VA/Q ratio is higher which means perfusion is inadequate i.e. in some parts of lungs the alveoli are non functional or partially functional. This is seen in cases of pulmonary thrombosis or embolism.
When there is higher VA/Q ratio, PO2 and PCO2 in the alveolar air resembles the values in the inspired air.
When exchange is not occurring because of lack of perfusion, inspired air goes to alveoli, as there is no exchange occurring so the same values of PCO2 and PO2 as in inspired air.
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood occurs by diffusion, as will be discussed in the next chapter. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs passively, according to their concentration differences across the alveolar-capillary barrier. These concentration differences must be maintained by ventilation of the alveoli and perfusion of the pulmonary capillaries.
Alveolar ventilation brings oxygen into the lung and removes carbon dioxide from it. Similarly, the mixed venous blood brings carbon dioxide into the lung and takes up alveolar oxygen. The alveolar Image not available. and Image not available. are thus determined by the relationship between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary perfusion. Alterations in the ratio of ventilation to perfusion, called the Image not available., will result in changes in the alveolar Image not available. and Image not available., as well as in gas delivery to or removal from the lung.
Alveolar ventilation is normally about 4 to 6 L/min and pulmonary blood flow (which is equal to cardiac output) has a similar range, and so the Image not available. for the whole lung is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2. Image not available. However, ventilation and perfusion must be matched on the alveolar-capillary level, and the Image not available. for the whole lung is really of interest only as an approximation of the situation in all the alveolar-capillary units of the lung. For instance, suppose that all 5 L/min of the cardiac output went to the left lung and all 5 L/min of alveolar ventilation went to the right lung. The whole lung Image not available. would be 1.0, but there would be no gas exchange because there could be no gas diffusion between the ventilated alveoli and the perfused pulmonary capillaries.
Oxygen is delivered to the alveolus by alveolar ventilation, is removed from the alveolus as it diffuses into the pulmonary capillary blood, and is carried away by blood flow. Similarly, carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveolus in the mixed venous blood and diffuses into the alveolus in the pulmonary capillary. The carbon dioxide is removed from the alveolus by alveolar ventilation. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, at resting cardiac outputs the diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide is normally limited by pulmonary perfusion. Thus, the alveolar partial pressures of both oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined by the Image not available. If the Image not available. in an alveolar-capillary unit increases, the delivery of oxygen relative to its removal will increase, as will the removal ...
Ventilation and Perfusion in different zones of lungs.Gyaltsen Gurung
This powerpoint presentation will make you explore about the Perfusion and Ventilation in different zones of lungs with its co-relation with pulmonary tuberculosis.
Ventilation perfusion ratio (The guyton and hall physiology)Maryam Fida
Ventilation perfusion ratio is :
“The ratio of alveolar ventilation and the amount of blood that perfuse the alveoli”.
FORMULA
It is expressed as VA/Q.
VA is alveolar ventilation
Q is the blood flow (perfusion)
Normal value of ventilation perfusion ratio is about
0.8
VA is 4.2 L /min
Q is 5.5 L/min (Same as Cardiac output)
So VA/Q = 4.2/5.5 = 0.8
If VA becomes zero ratio becomes zero
If Q becomes zero ratio becomes infinite.
If ratio becomes zero or infinite then there is no gaseous exchange. So this ratio indicates the efficiency of gaseous exchange in lungs.
In standing or sitting position this ratio is not uniform in all parts of the lungs.
In standing position, in upper parts of lungs there is almost no blood flow so normally in upper parts of lungs the ratio is higher may be near 3.
In lower part of lungs, there is more blood flow so the ratio is decreased may be 0.6.
In certain diseases the VA/Q ratio is higher which means perfusion is inadequate i.e. in some parts of lungs the alveoli are non functional or partially functional. This is seen in cases of pulmonary thrombosis or embolism.
When there is higher VA/Q ratio, PO2 and PCO2 in the alveolar air resembles the values in the inspired air.
When exchange is not occurring because of lack of perfusion, inspired air goes to alveoli, as there is no exchange occurring so the same values of PCO2 and PO2 as in inspired air.
Like heartbeat, breathing must occur in a continuous, cyclic pattern to sustain life processes.
Inspiratory muscles must rhythmically contract and relax to alternately fill the lungs with air and empty them.
The rhythmic pattern of breathing is established by cyclic neural activity to the respiratory muscles
Like heartbeat, breathing must occur in a continuous, cyclic pattern to sustain life processes.
Inspiratory muscles must rhythmically contract and relax to alternately fill the lungs with air and empty them.
The rhythmic pattern of breathing is established by cyclic neural activity to the respiratory muscles
Dr. Jibachha Sah,M.V.Sc( Veterinary pharmacology, TU,Nepal),posted lecturer notes on AUTONOMIC AND SYSTEMIC PHARMACOLOGY for B.V.Sc & A.H. 6 th semester veterinary students of College of veterinary science,Nepal Polytechnique Institute, Bharatpur, Bhojard, Chitwan, Nepal.I hope this lecture notes may be beneficial for other Nepalese veterinary students. Please send your comment and suggestion .Email:jibachhashah@gmail.com,moble,00977-9845024121
About pharmacological classification of sympathetic nervus system both sympathomimetics and sympatholytics drug and all about his pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics action on body
Your sympathetic nervous system is best known for its role in responding to dangerous or stressful situations.
In these situations, your sympathetic nervous system activates to speed up your heart rate, deliver more blood to areas of your body that need more oxygen or other responses to help your get out of danger.
Its nerve fibers arise from the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord.
The autonomic ganglia are the synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. The postganglionic axons then go to the visceral effectors.
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter releases in the preganglionic nerve endings and Noradrenaline at postganglionic nerve endings.
The drugs which mimic the action sympathetic division are called sympathomimetics.
They show similar actions as that of catecholamines.
Sympathomimetic
They act by either by directly interacting with adrenergic receptors (alpha or beta) or stimulation of the adrenergic nerve endings.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
2. Outlines
• Relationship between flow, pressure and
resistance in regards to the conducting airway
• Effects of catecholamines and cholinergic
agonists on the airflow
• Effects of histamine and prostaglandins on
bronchial smooth muscles and air flow
3. Airflow, pressure and resistance
relationships
• Analogous to the relationship in
cardiovascular system whereby
1. airflow = blood flow
2. gas pressure = fluid pressure
3. resistance of airway = resistance of blood
pressure
4. Airflow, pressure and resistance
relationships
ohm’s law
•Q = airflow (ml/min or L/min)
• P = pressure gradient (mm Hg or cm H20)
•R = airway resistance (cm H20/L/sec)
5. Pressure Gradient and Airflow
• Pressure difference ( P) is the driving force for
the airflow.
• In a breathing cycle :
- Rest : alveolar pressure = atmospheric pressure,
no pressure difference, no driving force, no
airflow
- Inspiration : diaphragm contracts, increase lung
volume, decrease alveolar pressure, presence of
pressure gradient hence the airflow
7. Airway Resistance and Airflow
• Flow is inversely proportional to resistance
• Resistance determinants : Poiseuille’s Law
8. Airway Resistance and Airflow
• Airway resistance is :
-directly proportional to viscosity and length
-inversely proportional to radius to the power of 4
(powerful relationship)
• Airflow is :
-directly proportional to the pressure gradient and
radius
-inversely proportional to the viscosity and length
9.
10. Effects of catecholamines and
cholinergic agonists on the airflow
• Bronchial smooth muscle is innervated by
parasympathetic cholinergic nerve fibers and by
sympathetic adrenergic nerve
• Sympathetic stimulation produces relaxation of
bronchial smooth muscle via stimulation of β2
receptors – increase airway diameter – decrease
resistance – increase airflow (adrenergic agonist)
• Parasympathetic stimulation produces
constriction of bronchial smooth muscle – reduce
diameter – increase resistance – decrease airflow
(cholinergic agonist)
11. Effects of catecholamines and
cholinergic agonists on the airflow
• Drugs affecting ANS are divided into 2 groups
(depending to the type of neuron involved in
the mechanism of action)
1.Cholinergic drugs - acts on the receptors that
are activated by Ach – stimulates the
parasympathetic
2.Adrenergic drugs – acts on the receptors that
are stimulated by norepinephrine and
epinephrine – stimulates the sympathetic
12. Effects of catecholamines and
cholinergic agonists on the airflow
1. Norepinephrine
• Post-ganglionic Neurotransmitter for the
sympathetic Nervous system
2. Acetylcholine
• Pre-ganglionic Neurotransmitter for both
systems
Post-ganglionic neurotransmitter for the
parasympathetic nervous system
14. Effects of Catecholamines on airflow
• Adrenergic neurons and receptors (stimulated by
epi/nor epi) are the sites of effect of adrenergic
drugs – catecholamines
• Adrenergic receptors – α and β
α adrenergic order of potency
Epinephrine > norepinephrine > isoproterenol
β adrenergic order of potency
Isoproterenol > epinephrine > norepinephrine
15. Cathecolamines receptors
α1 α2 β1 β2
Vasoconstriction Inhibition of Tachycardia Vasodilation
norepinephrine
release
Increased Inhibition of insulin Increase lipolysis Slightly Decrease in
peripheral release peripheral resistance
resistance
Increase in blood Increase in BRONCHODILATION
pressure contractility of
myocardium
Mydriasis Increse release of Increase muscle and
renin liver glygogenolysis
Increased closure of Relaxed uterine
spinchter of smooth muscle
internal spinchter
and bladder
17. Cholinergic agonists
• Cholinergic drugs - acts on the receptors that are
activated by Ach
• Carbachol, Bethanechol
- Synthetic esters of choline - binds directly to
cholinoreceptor - constriction of bronchial
smooth muscle
• Neostigmine
- Cholinesterase inhibitor - allow accumulation of
acetylcholine at the NMJ – prolongs effects
-constriction of bronchial smooth muscle
18. Summary for the effects of catecholamine
and cholinergic agonists on airflow
1. Catecholamine effect : isoproterenol and
epinephrine – adrenergic receptor –
sympathetic stimulation – bronchodilation –
decrease resistance
2. Cholinergic agonist : - Carbachol,
Bethanechol - cholinergic receptor –
parasympathetic stimulation –
bronchoconstriction – increase resistance
19.
20. Histamine effect on airflow
• Histamine
- Chemical messenger that mediates a wide range of
cellular responses including allergic and inflammatory
rxn, gastric acid secretion and neurotransmissions in
parts of the brain.
- Occurs in all tissues but unevenly distributed, high
amount found in lung, skin and GI tract
- High concentration in mast cells or basophils
- Component of venoms and in secretion from insect
stings
21. Histamine effect on airflow
• Histamine exerts its actions by combining with specific
cellular histamine receptors.
• The four histamine receptors that have been
discovered in humans and animals are designated H1
through H4
• Release of histamine may be from the response to
some stimuli like cold, bacterial toxins, bee sting
venoms, allergic and trauma.
22. Histamine effect on airflow
H1 receptors effect :
Increased production of nasal and bronchial mucous
Constriction of bronchioles
Mucosal edema from increased microvascular permeability
Itching and pain – sensory nerve ending
23. Prostaglandins effect on airflow
• Any member of a group of lipid compounds that
are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and
have important functions in the human body.
• They are synthesized in the cell from the
essential fatty acids.
• Mediate a wide range of physiological functions,
such as control of blood pressure, contraction of
smooth muscle, and modulation of inflammation.
• Found in most tissues and organs and produced
by almost all nucleated cells.
• They act upon platelets, endothelium, uterine
and mast cells.
24. Prostaglandins effect on airflow
• An intermediate arachidonic acid is created from
diacylglycerol via phospholipase-A2, then brought to
either the cyclooxygenase pathway or the
lipoxygenase pathway to form either prostaglandin
and thromboxane or leukotriene respectively.
• The cyclooxygenase pathway produces thromboxane,
prostacyclin and prostaglandin D, E and F.
• The lipoxygenase enzyme pathway is active in
leukocytes and in macrophages and synthesizes
leukotrienes.
27. Summary
• Airflow is directly proportional to the radius and
pressure gradient, and inversely proportional to
the length and viscosity
• Catecholamine causes bronchodilation
• Cholinergic agonist causes bronchoconstriction
• Histamine causes increase in airway resistance
• Prostaglandins have dual effects
- Protacycline – bronchodilation
- PGE2 – EP 1 – bronchoconstriction
EP 2 - bronchodilation
28. Reference
• Linda S Constanzo, 4th Edition 2006
• Lippincott’s illustrated reviews of pharmacology, 3rd Edition 2006
• Previous slide presentations