There are many different methodologies that can be used to conduct educational research.
The type of methodology selected by a researcher emanates directly from the research question that is being asked.
In addition, some of the differing techniques for conducting educational research reflect different paradigms in scientific thought.
Here a review of the most commonly used methodologies is presented the strengths and weaknesses of various methods are compared and contrasted.
Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods DesignThiyagu K
A Research Design is simply a structural framework of various research methods as well as techniques that are utilized by a researcher. This presentation slides explain the resign design of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method design.
Experimental method of Educational Research.Neha Deo
experimental method is the most challenging method of the Educational research. In the experimental method different functional & factorial designs can be used. One has to think over the internal & external validity of the experiment also.In this presentation all these things are discussed in details.
Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods DesignThiyagu K
A Research Design is simply a structural framework of various research methods as well as techniques that are utilized by a researcher. This presentation slides explain the resign design of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method design.
Experimental method of Educational Research.Neha Deo
experimental method is the most challenging method of the Educational research. In the experimental method different functional & factorial designs can be used. One has to think over the internal & external validity of the experiment also.In this presentation all these things are discussed in details.
Meaning, definitions & need of educational research.Neha Deo
To understand the meaning & nature of research, one must study the different definitions of research. In this presentation, definitions of research & educational research are given. From the definitions important characteristics of the research are listed & need of the educational research is also given.
Definition
A procedure used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.
This is done due to the fact that it is believed that both types of studies will provided a clearer understanding of what is being studied.
“It consists of merging ,integrating ,linking ,or embedding the two “strands””(Ceswell,2012).
Quantitative Methods of Research-Intro to research
Once a researcher has written the research question, the next step is to determine the appropriate research methodology necessary to study the question. The three main types of research design methods are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data.
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
The 1st session of the presentation clarifies the necessary background concept to understand Historical Research.
The 2nd Session touches the procedures to the stages, sources, collection of data, analyzing them and writing a legit report on the whole research.
The whole presentation is designed to create a link between ancient educational practices and how the old practices influence our education today, in other words, how today's education is reformed through a transformation from a very early time.
Quantum Computers New Generation of Computers Part 9 Quantum Computers Readin...Professor Lili Saghafi
Since instead of just computing in a linear binary way, with the presence or absence of an electrical charge being converted into "bits" of zeros or ones, Quantum Computers can take the rich quantum properties of subatomic particles and turn them into "Qubits" that can be both zero and one at the same time.
Quantum Computers could potentially run simulations and solve problems that are far too big for today's computers.
But there is a catch: A Quantum Computer could also break public encryption keys used today to keep data safe.
Quantum-readiness plan, providing advice about where vulnerabilities might be in the quantum-computer era, and strategies and tools that could be implemented now to make any transition into that era much easier.
Meaning, definitions & need of educational research.Neha Deo
To understand the meaning & nature of research, one must study the different definitions of research. In this presentation, definitions of research & educational research are given. From the definitions important characteristics of the research are listed & need of the educational research is also given.
Definition
A procedure used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.
This is done due to the fact that it is believed that both types of studies will provided a clearer understanding of what is being studied.
“It consists of merging ,integrating ,linking ,or embedding the two “strands””(Ceswell,2012).
Quantitative Methods of Research-Intro to research
Once a researcher has written the research question, the next step is to determine the appropriate research methodology necessary to study the question. The three main types of research design methods are qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Quantitative research involves the systematic collection and analysis of data.
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
The 1st session of the presentation clarifies the necessary background concept to understand Historical Research.
The 2nd Session touches the procedures to the stages, sources, collection of data, analyzing them and writing a legit report on the whole research.
The whole presentation is designed to create a link between ancient educational practices and how the old practices influence our education today, in other words, how today's education is reformed through a transformation from a very early time.
Quantum Computers New Generation of Computers Part 9 Quantum Computers Readin...Professor Lili Saghafi
Since instead of just computing in a linear binary way, with the presence or absence of an electrical charge being converted into "bits" of zeros or ones, Quantum Computers can take the rich quantum properties of subatomic particles and turn them into "Qubits" that can be both zero and one at the same time.
Quantum Computers could potentially run simulations and solve problems that are far too big for today's computers.
But there is a catch: A Quantum Computer could also break public encryption keys used today to keep data safe.
Quantum-readiness plan, providing advice about where vulnerabilities might be in the quantum-computer era, and strategies and tools that could be implemented now to make any transition into that era much easier.
Research Design and Methodology, Dr. W.A. Kritsonisguestcc1ebaf
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California.
In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of events .
This was a presentation that was carried out in our research method class by our group. It will be useful for PHD and master students quantitative and qualitative method. It consist sample definition, purpose of sampling, stages in the selection of a sample, types of sampling in quantitative researches, types of sampling in qualitative researches, and ethical Considerations in Data Collection.
Unlimited education’ cleveland presentationDale Davis
This is a Copyrighted (c) 2010 'Unlimited Education' PowerPoint Presentation designed for the Cleveland School Board. The Problems and Solutions expressed are indicative of the same Problems and Solutions for most every Urban Area in our nation.
We offer Life Changing Workshops for Children, Teens and Adults. The are free and can be held most anywhere: Schools, Community Centers, Libraries, Businesses, Churches or even Homes.
For more information, call Dale Davis FDR. at 336-986-1745 or e-mail: dsource4u@yahoo.com
DETHRONING RESEARCH METHODS: A Reflective Alternative To Study DesignZarla Ludin
Techniques that qualitative researchers can use to bring more credibility to their study designs. These techniques will help research teams solve for internal knowledge gaps, and also help establish a more rigorous user experience research practice.
Quantum Computers PART 3 Computer That Program itself by Prof. Lili SaghafiProfessor Lili Saghafi
The light switch game
The energy program
Calculate The Distance Between Two Large Vectors
Quantum Computers can LEARN
A computer that programs itself
Uncertainty is a feature
Learning
Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. During the first half of the twentieth century, the school of thought known as behaviorism rose to dominate psychology and sought to explain the learning process.
The three major types of learning described by behavioral psychology are classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism was the school of thought in psychology that sought to measure only observable behaviors.
Founded by John B. Watson and outlined in his seminal 1913 paper Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, the behaviorist standpoint held that psychology was an experimental and objective science and that internal mental processes should not be considered because they could not be directly observed and measured.
Watson's work included the famous Little Albert experiment in which he conditioned a small child to fear a white rat. Behaviorism dominated psychology for much of the early twentieth century. While behavioral approaches remain important today, the latter part of the century was marked by the emergence of humanistic psychology, biological psychology, and cognitive psychology.Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response.
For example, in Pavlov's classic experiment, the smell of food was the naturally occurring stimulus that was paired with the previously neutral ringing of the bell. Once an association had been made between the two, the sound of the bell alone could lead to a response.
How Classical Conditioning Works
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. First studied by Edward Thorndike and later by B.F. Skinner, the underlying idea behind operant conditioning is that the consequences of our actions shape voluntary behavior.
Skinner described how reinforcement could lead to increases in behaviors where punishment would result in decreases. He also found that the timing of when reinforcements were delivered influenced how quickly a behavior was learned and how strong the response would be. The timing and rate of reinforcement are known as schedules of reinforcement.
How Operant Conditioning Works
Observational Learning
Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the actions of others.As demonstrated in his classic "Bobo Doll" experiments, people will imitate the actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are essential for effective observational
Artificial Intelligence and the importance of Data, By : Prof. Lili SaghafiProfessor Lili Saghafi
The biggest barrier to the deployment and adoption of artificial intelligence and machine learning is bad data quality. Data from alternative resources and unstructured data is becoming increasingly important but must be “refined” before their insights become truly valuable for use.
STEP1-Understanding and Modeling Organizational Systems
Big Data, BI , power of Analytic in software development
System Analyst role , in defining root problem or opportunity
Software’s Project Management , workload , activities , team , risks
STEP2-Determining Priorities and Feasibility
Software and Hardware Alternatives, based on Cost benefit Analysis for tangible and intangible cost and benefits. Payback, ROI,….
STEP3-Software Development Projects, Methodology , Data gathering, Modeling , Agile
We Define AI as anything that makes machines act more intelligently
We like to think of AI as augmented intelligence
We believe that AI should not attempt to replace human experts, but rather extend human capabilities and accomplish tasks that neither humans nor machines could do on their own.
The internet has given us access to more information, faster.
Distributed computing and IoT have led to massive amounts of data.
Social networking has encouraged most of that data to be unstructured.
With Augmented Intelligence, we are putting information that subject matter experts need at their fingertips, and backing it with evidence so they can make informed decisions.
We want experts to scale their capabilities and let the machines do the time-consuming work.
Software Engineering_Agile Software Development By: Professor Lili SaghafiProfessor Lili Saghafi
Software Development Models and their processes (Review)
Agile Software Development method
Agile development Characteristic, Principals , lifecycle, stages
Agile development techniques
How it works
Agile project management , Scrum
Scaling agile methods , issues , Problems , maintenance , solutions , advantages
Quantum Computing Quantum Internet 2020_unit 1 By: Prof. Lili SaghafiProfessor Lili Saghafi
The quantum internet is now in a similar stage as the classical internet in the 1960's.
In half a decade the internet gained a huge role in our daily life.
It is not a matter of science anymore: a large community has been and still is working on how we can use the internet in our daily communication.
Bringing a scientific concept from universities to society requires effort from academia and industry and now we see the first footsteps being made.
In 2020 it is aiming to have a small quantum node network, which might become the first quantum internet on earth.
A quantum internet enables us to send qubits from one node to another.
This allows us to create entanglement between any two points.
Entanglement is inherently private.
Programming Languages Categories / Programming Paradigm By: Prof. Lili Saghafi Professor Lili Saghafi
A programming language is a notation designed to connect instructions to a machine or a computer.
Programming languages are mainly used to control the performance of a machine or to express algorithms.
At present, thousands of programming languages have been implemented.
In the computer field, many languages need to be stated in an imperative form, while other programming languages utilize declarative form.
The program can be divided into two forms such as syntax and semantics.
Blockchain is a combination of technologies that have existed for a long time.
They're simply combined in a new and creative way to give us an amazing new platform on which we can start to build solutions.
Blockchains are often referred to as digital decentralized ledgers.
It is something we're all familiar with: a simple notebook.
When we talk about blocks and blockchain, all we're really talking about is a page of data.
There's a new technology that has the power to revolutionize how you, businesses, and the world interact!
Hearing the word "blockchain" is comparable to hearing the word "internet" in the early 90s.
more than 20 years later. Think about how the Internet has transformed businesses, commerce, communication, even music and video.
The next technology to have that kind of impact isn't some of the buzzwords you hear.It's not big data. It's not artificial intelligence. It's not even social media. It's BLOCKCHAIN!
Cyber Security and Post Quantum Cryptography By: Professor Lili SaghafiProfessor Lili Saghafi
Quantum computing has the potential to transform cybersecurity.
Some encryption algorithms are thought to be unbreakable, except by brute-force attacks.
Although brute-force attacks may be hard for classical computers, they would be easy for quantum computers making them susceptible to such attacks.
All financial institutions, government agencies healthcare information are in danger.
How could this new thrust of computing strength give us new tiers of power to analyze IT systems at a more granular level for security vulnerabilities and protect us through more complex layers of quantum cryptography?
Machine learning by using python lesson 3 Confusion Matrix By : Professor Lil...Professor Lili Saghafi
A confusion matrix is a matrix (table) that can be used to measure the performance of an machine learning algorithm, usually a supervised learning one.
Each row of the confusion matrix represents the instances of an actual class and each column represents the instances of a predicted class.
This is the way we keep it like this but it can be the other way around as well, i.e. rows for predicted classes and columns for actual classes.
Machine learning by using python lesson 2 Neural Networks By Professor Lili S...Professor Lili Saghafi
When we say "Neural Networks", we mean artificial Neural Networks (ANN). The idea of ANN is based on biological neural networks like the brain.
The basic structure of a neural network is the neuron. A neuron in biology consists of three major parts: the soma (cell body), the dendrites, and the axon.
The dendrites branch of from the soma in a tree-like way and getting thinner with every branch. They receive signals (impulses) from other neurons at synapses. The axon - there is always only one - also leaves the soma and usually tend to extend for longer distances than the dentrites. The axon is used for sending the output of the neuron to other neurons or better to the synapsis of other neurons.
Machine learning is the kind of programming which gives computers the capability to automatically learn from data without being explicitly programmed.
This means in other words that these programs change their behavior by learning from data.
In this course we will cover various aspects of machine learning
Of course, everything will be related to Python. So it is Machine Learning by using Python.
What is the best programming language for machine learning?
Python is clearly one of the top players!
k-nearest Neighbor Classifier
Neural networks
Neural Networks from Scratch in Python
Neural Network in Python using Numypy
Dropout Neural Networks
Neural Networks with Scikit
Machine Learning with Scikit and Python
Naive Bayes Classifier
Introduction into Text Classification using Naive Bayes and Python
Explain the term "digital humanities," and how it is understood across humanities disciplines.
Describe the research journey as a partnership between researcher and library collections and staff.
List examples of the limits of classification.
Describe the implicit and explicit hierarchies that are created when gathering and analyzing data.
Distinguish between what counts as data and what does not.
Identify different data formats and how they fit into a research workflow.
Effective Algorithm for n Fibonacci Number By: Professor Lili SaghafiProfessor Lili Saghafi
Understand the definition of the Fibonacci numbers.
Understand the definition of the Recursive / Recursive Functions
Show that the naive algorithm for computing them is slow.
Efficiently create algorithms to compute large Fibonacci numbers.
The right algorithm makes all the difference.
DOS / DDOS introduction
How Easy it is to get information
Real Life Examples MyDoom , GitHub , Dyn , Windows Server and Windows 10 servers running Internet Information Services (IIS) are vulnerable to denial of service (DOS) attacks
Base of Attacks
Types of DOS / DDOS
Attack Tools , LOIC, XOIC, Stacheldracht
DOS/DDOS Weaknesses
Category of OS/ DDOS
What to defend?
Botnets and Botnets mitigations
Michael Calce, a.k.a. MafiaBoy
Point of entrance / OSI Model ( If time permit)
What is the basis for the Data Science course and Data Scientist to know?
1-Algorithm
2-Data
3-Ask The Right Question
4-Predict an answer
5- Copy other people's work to do data science
In This Data Science course ( Graduate Program ) I will focus on understanding business intelligence systems and helping future managers use and understand analytics, Business Intelligence emphasizing the applications and implementations behind the concepts. a solid foundation of BI that is reinforced with hands-on practice. The course is also designed as an introduction to programming and statistics for students from many different majors. It teaches practical techniques that apply across many disciplines and also serves as the technical foundation for more advanced courses in data science, statistics, and computer science.
There are ten areas in Data Science which are a key part of a project, and you need to master those to be able to work as a Data Scientist in much big organization.
Normal Labour/ Stages of Labour/ Mechanism of LabourWasim Ak
Normal labor is also termed spontaneous labor, defined as the natural physiological process through which the fetus, placenta, and membranes are expelled from the uterus through the birth canal at term (37 to 42 weeks
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
3. Overview
What is Research Methodology?
• There are many different methodologies that can be
used to conduct educational research.
• The type of methodology selected by a researcher
emanates directly from the research question that is
being asked.
• In addition, some of the differing techniques for
conducting educational research reflect different
paradigms in scientific thought.
• Here a review of the most commonly used
methodologies is presented
• the strengths and weaknesses of various methods are
compared and contrasted.
4.
5.
6. RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
• Research methodologies can be classified in
many different ways.
• some researchers distinguish between
quantitative and qualitative studies; others
distinguish between experimental and non-experimental
research; still others distinguish
between research that is conducted in
laboratories versus in the field (i.e., in
classrooms).
7. RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION
• There are many ways to categorize research
methods.
• There also is much overlap in such
categorizations.
• a “non-experimental” study can be either
quantitative or qualitative; an experimental study
can include some qualitative components.
• The objective is not attempt to classify these
methodologies; rather, the various methods are
first briefly described and then compared and
contrasted.
14. 1-Correlational Research
• Correlational research involves quantitatively
studying the relations between and among
variables.
• One of the hallmarks of correlational research
is that cause and effect relations cannot be
determined.
15. 1-Correlational Research
• Researchers who engage in correlational research do
not manipulate variables; rather, they collect data on
existing variables and examine relations between those
variables.
• A number of different statistical techniques can be
used to analyze correlational data.
• An example of a correlational research would be an
examination of the statistical relations between
middle school students' standardized examination
scores in mathematics, and the students'
demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, etc.).
16. 2-Experimental Research
• In an experiment, participants are randomly assigned to
one of several treatments.
• One of the most basic experimental designs involves
random assignment to either an experimental group (which
receives some kind of treatment), or a control group (which
does not receive the treatment).
• If the differences in treatment between the experimental
and the control group are tightly controlled, and if
subsequent to the experiment there are measurable
differences between the two groups that were not present
before the experiment, then researchers often conclude
that the experimental manipulation “caused” the
differences to occur.
17. 2-Experimental Research
• Many researchers and government agencies consider true
experiments to represent the gold standard in research;
however, it is extraordinarily difficult to conduct true
experiments in actual educational settings (i.e., schools).
• The primary reason for this difficulty is the fact that
students can rarely be randomly assigned to conditions or
classrooms in school settings.
• It is also important to distinguish between small-scale
experiments and larger-scale clinical trials.
• Small-scale experiments can occur in settings such as
laboratories or classrooms, whereas larger-scale clinical
trials often occur across many classrooms or schools.
18.
19. 2-Experimental Research
• An example of an experiment would be a study
examining the effects of a video presentation on
learning multiplication skills.
• Students in a classroom where all students are
learning about multiplication could be randomly
assigned to either watch a video that demonstrates
multiplication skills, or to watch another video (i.e., a
video about how to make ice cream sundaes); the
students would probably be asked to view the videos
in a highly controlled environment, where the
experimental and control conditions could be as
similar as possible (except for the video
presentation).
20. 2-Experimental Research
• If on a post-test the students who watched
the multiplication video outperformed the
other students, then a researcher could
conclude that the video “caused” the
improved performance.
21.
22. 3-Quasi-Experimental Research
• In quasi-experimental studies, researchers do
not randomly assign participants to groups
(Cook & Campbell, 1979).
• Quasi-experimentation is used often in
educational research, because it is often
impossible and sometimes unethical to
randomly assign students to settings.
23.
24. 3-Quasi-Experimental Research
• In quasi-experimental studies, researchers attempt to
control for differences between non-randomly assigned
groups in a number of ways.
• Two of the most common methods include (a)
matching, and (b) statistical control. The following
example explains the concept.
• A researcher is interested in comparing the effects of a
traditional third-grade reading curriculum with the
effects of an enhanced version of the curriculum that
includes extra homework assignments. If the two
versions of the curricula are being administered in
different classrooms, the researcher can try to “match”
similar classrooms on certain variables.
25. 3-Quasi-Experimental Research
• For example, the researcher might decide to
match classrooms on years of experience of
the teacher, wherein teachers with much
experience (e.g., 20 or more years of teaching
experience) might be paired, so that for each
pair of highly experienced teachers, one is
assigned to each condition.
26. 3-Quasi-Experimental Research
• The researcher can statistically control for
variables that are related to the outcome.
• If the researcher knows that variables such as
socioeconomic status and prior reading ability
are related to reading achievement, then the
researcher can statistically control for these
variables, in order to better assess the unique
effects of the new curriculum.
27.
28. 4-Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research represents a broad
framework for conducting educational
studies.
29.
30. Fraenkel and Wallen (1996) describe five general characteristics
of qualitative research studies. These include:
1. Researchers collect their data in naturalistic settings (e.g.,
classrooms), by observing and participating in regular
activities.
2. Data are collected via words or pictures (not via numerical or
quantifiable indicators).
3. Processes (i.e., how individuals communicate with each
other about a lesson) are as important as products (i.e.,
whether or not students obtain the correct answers to a
problem).
4. Most qualitative researchers do not start out with specific
hypotheses; rather, they use inductive methods to generate
conclusions regarding their observations.
5. Qualitative researchers care about participants' perceptions;
investigators are likely to question participants in depth
about their beliefs, attitudes, and thought processes.
31. 4-Qualitative Research
• A variety of methods can be used to conduct
qualitative studies.
• For example, qualitative researchers can collect
their data from direct observations, from analyses
of video or audio recordings, from interviews, or
from long-term ethnographic studies.
32. 4-Qualitative Research
• There are a variety of different ways of analyzing qualitative
data.
• Generally, researchers carefully examine their data and
discover themes that emerge from the data.
• Sometimes several researchers will analyze the same sources
of data and then compare their conclusions and examine the
extent to which they agree or disagree (inter-rater reliability);
in other studies, one researcher will conduct all of the
analyses, and will also critically examine how his or her own
biases may affect interpretations.
• Software packages have been developed to assist qualitative
researchers with data analysis.
• Two of the most commonly used packages are Nvivo and
NUDIST.
33.
34. 5-Quantitative Research
• Quantitative Research focuses on measurable
variations between and among
variables, qualitative studies focus on holistic
descriptions of learners and teachers in
naturalistic settings.
39. 6-Longitudinal and Cross-sectional Research
• Many research studies in education focus on
developmental issues (i.e., how individuals
change over time).
• For example, it is known that the reading
strategies that young children use are
different from the reading strategies adopted
by older children (Pressley & Harris, 2006).
• There are several different methods that can
be used to examine such developmental
phenomena.
40. 6-Longitudinal and Cross-sectional
Research
• In a longitudinal study, researchers collect
data on the same individuals over a number of
different time periods or “waves.”
• Thus the same group of students might
complete study assessments at the end of first
grade, second grade, third grade, and fourth
grade.
• Researchers can then examine changes in
student data across those four years.
41.
42. 7-Cross-sectional Research
• In a cross-sectional study, researchers collect data on
individuals of differing ages or developmental levels,
at the same time. Thus data are collected for many
students, at one time interval only.
• For example, a researcher might give assessments to
200 first graders, 200 second graders, 200 third
graders, and 200 fourth graders all at the same time.
• Then the researcher can compare the results of
students in these four different grades and try to
draw some conclusions about developmental
differences.
43. Longitudinal vs Cross-sectional
Research
• Most researchers agree that when possible, longitudinal
studies provide better developmental data than cross-sectional
studies.
• The primary advantage of longitudinal studies is that the
same individuals are assessed at different time points;
therefore, it is easier to make inferences about true
development over time, since the distinct data points
represent the same individuals across different time
periods.
• However, longitudinal research is often difficult to conduct,
because it is very expensive, and it is often difficult to track
individuals over time; many of the students who participate
in the first wave of data collection may have moved or may
not want to participate in later waves of the study.
44.
45. 8-Design Experiments
• When researchers conduct design
experiments, they examine the effects of
educational interventions in actual classrooms
while the interventions are being
implemented.
• As results are obtained and analyzed, the
intervention is changed and continuously re-evaluated
(Brown, 1992).
46. Cobb, Confrey, diSessa, Lehrer, and Schauble (2003) identified
five overarching features of design experiments:
1. The purpose of design experiments is to develop
theories about learning (including how learning is
supported).
2. Design experiments involve an intervention, or the
introduction of a new instructional technique.
3. In design experiments, researchers attempt to
develop new theoretical perspectives, but also must
test and refine their theories along the way.
4. Design experiments have iterative designs; as
theories change during the study, the design of the
study must be revised and altered accordingly.
5. The theories that are developed in design
experiments should affect future instruction.
47.
48. 8-Design Experiments
• An example of a design experiment might be a study of a
new curriculum designed to teach adolescents about HIV
and pregnancy prevention.
• The curriculum might be introduced into the classroom
setting; then, after initial presentation of the first few units,
the researchers might collect data and then make some
alterations to the next units, based on those data. This
process can continue until the curriculum is substantially
improved.
• It is important to note that in design experiments, the
changes in instruction that occur across iterations are often
confounded with greater teacher familiarity with the
approach as a whole. This can be problematic, because it
hinders researchers' abilities to make causal inferences.
49. 9-What is Design-based Research?
• While there is an ongoing debate about what
constitutes design-based research (Van den Akker
& et al., in press), the definition of design-based
research proposed by Wang and Hannafin (2005)
captures its critical characteristics:
– a systematic but flexible methodology aimed to
improve educational practices through iterative
analysis, design, development, and implementation,
based on collaboration among researchers and
practitioners in real-world settings, and leading to
contextually-sensitive design principles and theories
(p. 6)
50. 9-What is Design-based Research?
• Design-based research is a research
methodology initially conceived of in the
1990s.
• In order to use this method and fully
understand the purpose of studies conducted
using it, it's helpful to read about where the
method came from, why it was a unique
method, and what the need is that it fills.
51. 9-What is Design-based Research?
• Design-Based Research: An Emerging
Paradigm for Educational Inquiry
Authors: The Design-Based Research
Collective
• Toward a Design Science of Education
Author: Alan Collins
• Brainpop
https://www.brainpop.com/free_stuff/
53. 10-Microgenetic Research
• In Microgenetic Research studies, the same
individual is observed intensively over a long
period of time; this could be for many weeks
or even months. Data are collected in order to
examine both large-scale and small-scale
changes in learners' use of strategies over
time (Kuhn, 1995). Data can be analyzed via
either quantitative or qualitative methods,
depending on the types of data that are
collected.
54. 10-Microgenetic Research
• As noted by Chinn (2006), most educational
research using a microgenetic approach has
examined learners' usage of cognitive strategies
(e.g., problem solving). Micro-genetic studies are
time consuming and be expensive, but they also
can provide researchers with rich and detailed
information concerning cognitive processes in
learners. An example of a microgenetic study
would be an examination of a kindergartener's
strategy usage in solving simple addition
problems over a three-month period.
55.
56. 11-Single-Subject Research
• In a single-subject study, there is only one
participant. Researchers generally examine a
variable at a baseline stage (prior to the start of
an intervention), and then later examine how this
variable changes at different time intervals, as an
intervention is introduced. In single-subject
research, control or comparison groups are not
used. Researchers are particularly interested in
whether or not patterns replicate over time
within the same subject; in addition, researchers
also examine whether or not similar patterns can
be generated in new subjects.
57. 11-Single-Subject Research
• Single-subject studies are particularly common in the
special education literature, although this methodology
can be used in other areas of educational research as
well. An example of a single-subject study would be an
examination of the effect of classical music on the
ability of a learning-disabled child to solve single-digit
addition problems.
• First, the child's baseline addition skills would be
assessed; then, the student's skills in the presence of
music would be measured. The music might then be
alternately started and stopped several times, while
the student's problem-solving skills are continuously
assessed.
58.
59.
60. 12-Action Research
• Action research is research that is conducted by
classroom teachers, examining their own
practices.
• The goal of action research is to examine one's
practices critically and then to make changes to
those practices based on the results of the
research.
• Action research can be conducted by a single
teacher, or by a group of educators working
together.
61.
62. Ferrance (2000) summarizes five steps
in action research. These include:
1. Identify the problem or question that is going to be
investigated.
2. Gather data to help answer the driving question. Data
can be collected in many forms (e.g., interviews with
students, surveys, journals, video or audio tapes,
samples of student work, etc.).
3. Interpret the data by critically examining all data
sources, and identifying major themes.
4. Evaluate results; in particular, examine whether or not
the research question has been answered.
5. Take next steps—develop additional research
questions, or make changes to instructional methods.
63. 12-Action Research
• Action research can improve instruction for
students; in addition, it can empower
teachers, since it is a tool that allows them to
judge their own efforts and evaluate the
outcomes of their practices.
64.
65.
66. STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF
RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Each of the aforementioned research designs has both
strengths and weaknesses. Some of these differences are
obvious but others are not. Table 1 presents some
examples of the key strengths and weaknesses of the
various research methodologies discussed in this entry. This
is not an exhaustive list; rather, it is provided to
demonstrate that each methodology is complex and has
both pros and cons.
• When researchers and consumers of research evaluate the
strengths and weaknesses of various designs, there are
many issues to consider. Specifically, there are several key
questions that can serve as a framework for evaluating
research designs. The main questions are discussed below.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71. A-The Research Question
• The research question is by far the most
important question to consider when selecting
and evaluating a research design. In all
educational studies, the major research question
should be articulated before the methodology is
selected; the appropriate methodology should
then be chosen based on that question.
• Most social scientists agree that a preferred
methodology should not be used as a framework
to guide research.
72. A-The Research Question
• For example, a large school district might want
to know if high school students' foreign
language pronunciation is better after two
years of studying Spanish or two years of
studying French.
• The research question might be: What is the
relation between studying French versus
studying Spanish, and foreign language
pronunciation after two years of study?
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78. A-The Research Question
• The researcher then must decide which research design is
the most appropriate to answer the specific research
question.
• In this example, the researcher can easily eliminate several
options.
• For example, an experiment would be impossible, since
students cannot be randomly assigned to Spanish or French
classes. In addition, the researcher might decide that
qualitative and microgenetic studies are inappropriate,
since the researcher is not interested in the processes or
developmental trends that occur over time.
• There are several other questions that the researcher must
also address that will help to finalize the decision.
79.
80.
81. B-The Sample Being Studied
• The Sample Being Studied. Researchers must
consider the nature of their samples when
selecting a methodology. This is an important
question because some methodologies are
challenging to implement with certain
populations.
82.
83. B-The Sample Being Studied
• For example, most studies that use survey-based
methodologies require the participants to be able
to read the survey items. If the sample included
young children, or individuals with impaired
visual abilities, then this might preclude the use
of a self-administered survey.
• In addition, if the researcher is studying a large
sample, with more than 1000 participants, in
many cases this would prohibit the investigator
from implementing single-subject designs, since
the sample is so large.
84. C-Resources Available to Do the
Research
• Many resources are needed to complete
research studies.
• Novice researchers often do not realize the
cost involved with educational studies.
• A college student doing a small study for a
research methods course will certainly not
have the same resources available as an
experienced investigator with a multimillion
dollar grant.
85.
86. C-Resources Available to Do the
Research
• Resources involve more than money. Another
important consideration is personnel. Some research
methodologies require more personnel than others.
For example, a microgenetic study might be carried out
by one investigator who can focus on the progress of a
few subjects.
• In contrast, a large experimental study that requires
collection of large amounts of data from many
participants will require many more personnel. Thus if
fewer resources are available, a researcher might not
be able to use the ideal methodology to conduct a
study.
87. C-Resources Available to Do the
Research
• Time is another important resource that often affects
the type of methodology that is chosen for a particular
study. A design experiment that involves continuous
evaluation of progress and setting of goals might be
ideal if a researcher has enough time to devote to a
long-term study.
• Some studies (e.g., longitudinal studies) take a long
time to complete.
• Thus a researcher who is interested in examining
developmental issues, but who does not have a lot of
time and funding, might select a cross-sectional
methodology instead.
88. D-The Intended Audience for the
Research
• Different audiences will benefit from different
kinds of research studies.
• If the audience is practitioners, then action
research might be highly appropriate.
• First, teachers can be directly involved in action
research studies; second, other educators might
be more willing to accept the results obtained
from one of their peers via action research than
from unknown researchers.
89.
90. D-The Intended Audience for the
Research
• Certain funding agencies might be interested in
only funding some types of studies.
• For example, there is much debate among
educational researchers about the advantages
and disadvantages of using experimental designs
in educational research; whereas many funding
agencies encourage experimental studies, many
educational researchers argue that sometimes,
true experiments are difficult to implement in
actual classroom settings.
91.
92. 13-Using Mixed Methods
• Many educational issues are multifaceted and complex;
consequently, often one single methodology will not
yield all of the essential information that researchers
desire.
• Given the strengths and weaknesses of the various
designs, and the many decisions that researchers must
make before choosing a methodology, a number of
scholars in recent years have begun to use mixed
methods in educational research.
• When researcher use mixed methods, they use a
variety of different methodologies within the same
study.
93. 13-Using Mixed Methods
• A mixed methods study is usually challenging;
the researchers must be able to utilize
multiple designs appropriately.
• Some mixed methods studies involve two or
more methodologies being carried out
simultaneously, whereas others involve a
succession of different studies, all designed to
answer one general research question.
94. 13-Using Mixed Methods
• An example is a study conducted by Turner
and her colleagues (Turner et al., 2002).
• In that study, the researchers were interested
in examining the relations between early
adolescents' perceptions of the classroom
environment and the students' use of
avoidance strategies (e.g., avoidance of asking
for help from the teacher) in math classrooms.
95. 13-Using Mixed Methods
• The researchers realized that the use of
multiple methods would help them to best
answer their research question. Therefore,
they conducted a study in which longitudinal
survey data were collected from a sample of
more than 1,000 students.
• The researchers also randomly selected nine
classrooms in which they conducted
observations
96. 13-Using Mixed Methods
• The final analysis of data included quantitative
results from the surveys as well as qualitative
results from detailed discourse analyses from
the classrooms.
• Each source of data provided different types
of information, which allowed the researchers
to examine a variety of indicators of the use of
avoidance strategies by students.
97. 13-Using Mixed Methods
• The quantitative survey data allowed the
researchers to examine the relations of both
student characteristics (e.g., gender) and
students' perceptions of classroom
environments to the use of avoidance
strategies; the observational data allowed the
researchers to examine the discourse patterns
in classrooms with different types of learning
environments.
98. SUMMARY
• research methodology is a complex topic. This
entry has described some of the most basic
issues in the research enterprise, some of the
methods that educational researchers use in their
work, and some of the complexities involved in
deciding upon an appropriate methodology.
• Ultimately, the methodology that is chosen will
be determined by the specific research question
and by the resources that are available.
99. SUMMARY
• Most research studies have limitations, which often are
related to the design of the study.
• Research can always be improved, and it is important
for scholars engaged in educational research critically
to evaluate their designs and to acknowledge the
limitations of their studies.
• As new researchers replicate previous studies, they
often will attempt to eliminate the design problems
encountered by previous researchers. This is one of the
most important ways in which educational researchers
can continue to improve and enhance knowledge
about teaching and learning.
100. BIBLIOGRAPHY
• Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating
complex interventions.Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 141–178.
• Chinn, C. (2006). The microgenetic method: Current work and extensions to classroom research. In
J. L. Green, G. Cmailli, & P.B. Elmore (Eds.), Handbook of complementary methods in education
research (pp. 439–456). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Cobb, P., Confrey, J., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2003). Design experiments in educational
research. Educational Researcher, 32, 9–13.
• Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field
settings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Ferrance, E. (2000). Action research. Providence, RI: Northeast and Islands Regional Educational
Laboratory at Brown University.
• Fraenkel, J.R., & Wallen, N.E. (1996). How to design and evaluate research in education (3rd ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Kuhn, D. (1995). Microgenetic study of change: What has it told us? Psychological Science, 6, 133–
139.
• Pressley, M., & Harris, J.R. (2006). Cognitive strategies instruction: From basic research to classroom
instruction. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd ed.,
pp. 265–286). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
• Turner, J. C., Midgley, C., Meyer, D. K., Gheen, M., Anderman, E. M., Kang, Y., & Patrick, H. (2002).
The classroom environment and students' reports of avoidance strategies in mathematics: A
multimethod study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 88–106.
101. Prof. Lili Saghafi
Conference on Education Media Design
and Technology
2014
Professor Lili Saghafi
Proflilisaghafi@gmail.com