Research methodology

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY
ForFor
MANAGEMENT SCIENCESMANAGEMENT SCIENCES
byby
C. P. Rijal, PhD in LeadershipC. P. Rijal, PhD in Leadership
20162016
February 21, 2016 1rijalcpr@gmail.com

UNIT I: INTRODUCTIONUNIT I: INTRODUCTION
1.1.Basic concepts of research [meaning, objectives,Basic concepts of research [meaning, objectives,
nature, purpose, scope]nature, purpose, scope]
2.2.Classification of research; types of research inClassification of research; types of research in
general and types of management researchgeneral and types of management research
3.3.Features of a more scientific researchFeatures of a more scientific research
4.4.Attributes of a good management researchAttributes of a good management research
5.5.Selected management research methodologiesSelected management research methodologies
6.6.Situations for and against research initiativesSituations for and against research initiatives
7.7.Socio-ethical considerations in researchSocio-ethical considerations in research
8.8.Process of researchProcess of research

Research MeansResearch Means
Systematic and objective investigation of aSystematic and objective investigation of a
subjectsubject or aor a problemproblem in order to discoverin order to discover
relevant information.relevant information.

Investigation on a subject refers to …
Establishing a conceptual, or theoretical
understanding about something to be
promoted as part of disciplinary studies.
For example, development of a theory in
public health.

Investigation on a problem refers to …
Assessing, diagnosing, exploring, or
evaluating various facets pertaining to a
management problem.
For example, what percentage of theFor example, what percentage of the
first time visitors of the Bhatbhatenifirst time visitors of the Bhatbhateni
Superstores revisit this place forSuperstores revisit this place for
shopping?shopping? Why Boeing Airliners sales could not match with
its huge company costs! The top management
was quite concerned…
[Reference: Malhotra, & Dash, (2011, pp. 3-4).
Boieng taking flight.]

Discovery of information is essential for…
establishing the theoretical or
conceptual grounds for a disciplinary
study, or
deducting problem solution or decisiondeducting problem solution or decision
alternative in a defined situation oralternative in a defined situation or
context.context. Frequent flying customer expectations
on flight experiences with Boeing 757.
[Reference: Malhotra, & Dash, (2011,
pp. 3-4). Boieng taking flight.]

Thus, a research is an original contribution to
the existing stock of knowledge and it aims
for making advancement in the existing level
of knowledge.
It is the pursuit of truth to be generated by
the help of study, observation, comparison
and experimentation.

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• Research is therefore an original contribution
to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement.
• It is the pursuit of truth with the help of
study, observation, comparison and
experiment.

Research, Intuition and Empiricism…
1.1.Research: evidence-based inquiryResearch: evidence-based inquiry
2.2.Intuition: thought-based sharingIntuition: thought-based sharing
3.3.Empiricism: Replacement of intuition withEmpiricism: Replacement of intuition with
evidenceevidence
How would you portray the significance ofHow would you portray the significance of
these elements in managerial decision-these elements in managerial decision-
making? Discuss.making? Discuss.

WHAT IS BUSINESS RESEARCH?WHAT IS BUSINESS RESEARCH?
 Business research may be defined as a systematic
and objective process of gathering, recording and
analyzing data so as to build information relevant
to support the decision-making process in
business.
 SystematicSystematic and objective inquiry are the key
distinguishing features of any research.
 Business research serves as an instrumental tooltool
for decision-makingfor decision-making for all managers by
strengthening their ability, willingness and skill
competence through empiricism.February 21, 2016 10rijalcpr@gmail.com

WHEN IS BUSINESS RESEARCH USED?WHEN IS BUSINESS RESEARCH USED?
 Typically, business research is used in situations of
uncertainty, i.e., when the decision-makers have
multiple, or no alternatives to make the decision
under defined circumstances.
 Business research is hence aimed at improving the
quality of decision-making which, in turn, benefits
the organization and helps ensure its continuity and
efficiency.
 The areas of application may be diverse – new
product or service development, collecting customer
feedback, evaluating the effectiveness of marketing
and promotions campaigns, performing business
feasibility, and so on.
 Can we deduct a detailed list of other such
situations?

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used
1. General Business
Conditions and Corporate
Research
• Short and long-range
forecasting,
• Business and industry
trends
• Global environments
• Inflation and pricing
• Plant and warehouse
Location
• Acquisitions
2. Management and OB
Research
• Total quality management
• Morale and job satisfaction
• Leadership styles
• Employee productivity
• Organizational
effectiveness
• Structural issues
• Absenteeism and turnover
• Organizational process
climate

Fields Where Business Research is Often Used...
3. Financial and Accounting Research
• Forecast of financial interest rate trends,
• Stock,bond and commodity value predictions
• Capital formation alternatives
• Mergers and acquisitions
• Risk-return trade-offs
• Portfolio analyses
• Impact of taxes
• Research on financial institutions
• Expected rate of return
• Capital asset pricing models
• Credit risk analyses
• Cost analyses

4. Sales and Marketing Research
• Market potential
• Market share
• Market segmentation
• Market characteristics
• Sales analyses
• Establishment of sales quotas
• Distribution channels
• New product concepts
• Test markets
• Advertising research
• Buyer behaviour
• Customer satisfaction
• Website visit ratesFebruary 21, 2016 14rijalcpr@gmail.com

6. Corporate
Responsibility Research
• Ecological impact
• Legal constraints on
advertising and
promotion
• Sex, age and racial
discrimination / worker
equity
• Social values and ethics
5. Information Systems Research
• Knowledge and information
needs assessment
• Computer information system
use and evaluation
• Technical suppot satisfaction
• Database analysis
• Data mining
• Enterprise resource planning
systems
• Customer relationship
management systems

Typical Users of Business Research Information
 Business houses and corporations
 Public-sector agencies
 Consulting firms
 Research institutes and laboratories
 Non-governmental organizations
 Not-for-profit organizations
 International development agencies
 Independent researchers and consultants
QuestionQuestion
What are the purposes
that these institutions
can use research
information?

Common Business Research Methods and
Techniques
1. Surveys
2. Interviews
3. Observations
4. Experiments
5. Reviews or desk research
6. Qualitative analyses
7. Quantitative analyses
8. Mix of any of the above stated methods

Key Types of ResearchKey Types of Research
Basically, there are two types of research --
a.Fundamental Research, and
b.Applied Research

Fundamental ResearchFundamental Research
Known as the basic or pure research; seeks to
expand the boundary of knowledge in the given
area, and is also understood as academic
research.
For exampleFor example, d, development of researchevelopment of research
methods,, development of an academicmethods,, development of an academic
discourse, propagation of a new concept, modeldiscourse, propagation of a new concept, model
or theory.or theory.

Applied ResearchApplied Research
Known as a decisional research; and attempts to
use existing knowledge for resolving the current
problem.
For example?
What are the customer needs, expectations, and
problems of Nepal Bank Limited services?
How did the general public like the prevailing
governance system?

A research could be --A research could be --
1.Exploratory
2.Descriptive
3.Analytical
4.Experimental/Diagnostic/Clinical
5.Fundamental/Conceptual
6.Applied
7.Historical
8.Qualitative
9.Quantitative

Repeat it again…
¤ A research may be considered as a
systematic and objective investigation that
involves systematic designdesign,, collectioncollection,,
preparationpreparation,, interpretationinterpretation and reportingreporting
of information needed to solve specific
problems or promote a domain of learning
for promoting knowledge.

Objectives of ResearchObjectives of Research
Primarily, a research may have two-fold
objectives --
i.Contribute to the field of fundamental
knowledge, and/or
ii.Contribute with information for management
decision-making against particular problem/s.

Pattern of Wording of the Research Objectives
1.1. AssessAssess
2.2. ExploreExplore
3.3. EvaluateEvaluate
4.4. ExamineExamine
5.5. CompareCompare
6.6. EstimateEstimate
7.7. PropagatePropagate

Meaning of Different Objective Terminologies
Levels Nature of
Objective
Objective Description
1. AssessmentAssessment To observe the situation and infer results
2. ExplorationExploration To uncover the reality facing a problem
3. EvaluationEvaluation To measure the level of existence
4. ExaminationExamination To test the existence
5. ComparisonComparison To compare and contrast between given
variables
6. EstimationEstimation To project probable level of happening
7. PropagationPropagation To declare a concept, theory, system or model

The Research Process
Step 1Step 1
Define theDefine the
researchresearch
problemproblem
Step 2
Design
the
research
initiatives Step 3
Implement
the
research
Step 4
Perform data
processing,
analyses
Step 5
Develop the
research
report
Step 5
Develop the
research
report

Research DesignResearch Design
 Specification of methods and procedures for
obtaining the information needed
 A plan or organizing framework for conducting
the study and collecting data
 Serves as the blueprint of the detailed procedures
and rationales of a research project
 An essential part of research methodology

Research Design Answers These Questions
1. What is the study all about?
2. Why is the study being carried out?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What tools and techniques of data collection will
be used?
5. How will the issue of validity and reliability be
addressed?
6. What type of data are required?
7. How much time will the study require?
8. What will be the sample design?
9. What techniques of data collection will be used ?
10.How will the data be analyzed and interpreted?

Importance of Research Design
 Serves as a foundation to formulate and guide
the research study
 Supports in better planning & execution of the
research methodology
 Useful in the estimation of probable research
errors and handling strategies
 Maintains necessary control over the contents
of the study
 Makes the study more systematic, and
effective

Tasks of Research Design
Determine the exploratory, descriptive, or causal
phases of the research
Determine the information needed
Specify the measurement and scaling procedures
Construct and pretest appropriate forms of data
collection
Specify sampling process and sample size
Develop a plan of data analysis and presentation
Develop a monitoring and control mechanism to
facilitate the overall research function

Types of Research Designs
On the basis of the study techniques undertaken,
research designs can primarily be categorized
into TWO forms:
1. Exploratory Research Designs1. Exploratory Research Designs
2. Conclusive Research Designs2. Conclusive Research Designs
a.a. Descriptive Research DesignsDescriptive Research Designs
b. Causal Research Designsb. Causal Research Designs

Observational
Research
Gathering data
by observing
people, actions
and situations
(Exploratory)
Experimental
Research
Using groups of
people to
determine
cause and
effect
relationships
(Causal)
Survey Research
Asking
individuals
about attitudes,
preferences or
behaviors
(Descriptive)
Three Research Approaches

Types of Research Designs
Exploratory
Research
Descriptive
Research
Causal
Research
Test hypotheses about cause and effect
relationships
X causes Y
Gathers preliminary information to define
the problem and suggest hypotheses
Literature search, expert interviews, focus
groups, case studies, company audits,
qualitative research
Describes things as the market potential of
a product, consumer demographics and
attitudes
Secondary data analysis, surveys, observations,
panels, simulations

Research Design Process
Step 1: Define the research problem
Step 2: Estimate the value of the information to be
provided by the research
Step 3: Select the data collection methods
Step 4: Select the measurement techniques
Step 5: Select the sample
Step 6: Select the analytical approach
Step 7: Evaluate the ethics of the research
Step 8: Specify the time and financial costs
Step 9: Prepare the research proposal

Components of a Research Proposal
TechnicalTechnical
1. Problem definition
2. Study approach and designs
3. Population and sampling
strategies
4. Sources of data
5. Instrumentation
6. Mechanism for research
administration
7. Mechanism for data
processing and analyses
8. Expertise involved
9. Other resources required
10. Plan of action
11. Expected outcomes
FinancialFinancial
1. Budgeting of the
research project
2. Terms of payment
3. Schedule of payment
4. Researcher-client
financial obligations
and liabilities

Features of a More Scientific Research
1.1. Research approach:Research approach: Need be based on a blend of
both qualitative and quantitative approaches of
research.
2.2. Research design:Research design: Needs be crafted on exploratory,
descriptive and causal research designs.
3.3. Sampling strategies:Sampling strategies: Should have used systematic
sampling method and relevant techniques matching
with the nature of research.

Features of a More Scientific Research…
4.4. Adequacy:Adequacy: Should be backed up by adequate
sample size and information variety collected
through different methods.
5.5. Triangulation:Triangulation: Information confirmation should be
based on triangulation between multiple sources and
methods.
6.6. Statistical analyses:Statistical analyses: Should have used relevant
statistical tools and techniques to produce
descriptive and causal information.

Features of a More Scientific Research…
7.7. Use of grounded theories and models:Use of grounded theories and models: Conducted on
the basis of already existing theoretical or conceptual
grounding.
8.8. Reliability and validity:Reliability and validity: Incorporated the tests and
confirmation of statistical as well as administrative
reliability and validity.
9.9. Replicability:Replicability: Should be based on universally
replicated or replicable methods and techniques at its
different phases.
10.10. Originality:Originality: Should bring something original, or for
the first time.

Situations Requiring Research Initiatives
1.1. Availability of information:Availability of information: If we do not have
adequate and reliable information within the
organization and any other secondary sources for
decision-making .
2.2. Time available:Time available: If we have enough time for research
information collection and decision-making.
3.3. Cost and benefits:Cost and benefits: If the sum of direct and opportunity
cost of the research is less than its benefits, and there is
immediate funding possibility for research.
4.4. Access to the sources of information:Access to the sources of information: If we can
establish formal contacts with the sample units and
other sources of information.

Situations Requiring Research Initiatives…
5.5. Resource and expertise availability:Resource and expertise availability: If we have
access to required general resources and expertise
required for the said research project.
6.6. Legacy of the research activities:Legacy of the research activities: If the activities
to be performed do not violate any political-legal,
socio-cultural, economic, technological, natural, and
international legislative and general issues.

Attributes of a Good Management ResearchAttributes of a Good Management Research
1.1. The research problem has been explicitlyThe research problem has been explicitly
defined.defined.
2.2. Research has involved appropriate design andResearch has involved appropriate design and
sampling strategies.sampling strategies.
3.3. The research issues are directly linked withThe research issues are directly linked with
managerial implications.managerial implications.
4.4. All methodological aspects are well elaboratedAll methodological aspects are well elaborated
and clearly understandable to all its readers.and clearly understandable to all its readers.
5.5. It has complied with relevant socio-ethical issuesIt has complied with relevant socio-ethical issues
concerning to the treatment of the client,concerning to the treatment of the client,
research participants, and members of theresearch participants, and members of the
research team.research team.

Socio-Ethical Considerations in Research
Nature and Content of Socio-Ethical Issues
Issues concerning theIssues concerning the
treatment of thetreatment of the
Research participantsResearch participants
* Purpose shouldn't be
to sell merchandise
* Anonymity must be
protected
----------------------------
•Ultraviolet ink
•Hidden tape recorders
•One-way mirrors
•Fake long distance calls
•Fake research firm
•Right to safety
•Right to be informed
•Right to privacy
•Right to choice
Issues concerning theIssues concerning the
treatment of the clienttreatment of the client
* Methods used and
results should be
accurately reported
---------------------------
•Confidentiality
•Unqualified
researcher
•Proprietary
information
•Unnecessary
research
Issues concerningIssues concerning
the treatment ofthe treatment of
the research assistantsthe research assistants
* Should not disseminate
conclusions that are
inconsistent with data
* Should not solicit
designs and deliver to
another for execution
----------------------------
•Excessive requests
•Reneging on promises
•Availability of funds

UNIT II: REVIEW OF LITERATUREUNIT II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
1.1.Meaning and Importance of Review of LiteratureMeaning and Importance of Review of Literature
in Researchin Research
2.2.Process of Review of LiteratureProcess of Review of Literature
3.3.Components of Review of LiteratureComponents of Review of Literature
4.4.Documenting the Review of Literature Using APADocumenting the Review of Literature Using APA
Style GuidelinesStyle Guidelines
5.5.Development of Conceptual or TheoreticalDevelopment of Conceptual or Theoretical
Framework of the Study as an Outcome of ReviewFramework of the Study as an Outcome of Review
of Literatureof Literature

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2.1. Meaning and Importance of ROL2.1. Meaning and Importance of ROL
The review of the literature may be definedThe review of the literature may be defined
as a broad, comprehensively synthesized, in-as a broad, comprehensively synthesized, in-
depth, systematic, and critical study ofdepth, systematic, and critical study of
literature related to the concern of ongoingliterature related to the concern of ongoing
research.research.
Such literature may be published orSuch literature may be published or
unpublished, and in any form – print, audio,unpublished, and in any form – print, audio,
and/or visual.and/or visual.

The review of the literature is traditionally
considered a systematic and critical review of the
most important published scholarlyscholarly literature on a
particular topic.
ScholarlyScholarly literatureliterature refers to published or
unpublished data-based literature and conceptual
materials found in print and non-print forms.
Data-based literatureData-based literature is performed by reviewing
the reports of completed research.
Conceptual researchConceptual research comprises of review of reports
of established theories, concepts.

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 Primarily, it aims to supplement the level ofPrimarily, it aims to supplement the level of
researcher’s knowledge in the respective field.researcher’s knowledge in the respective field.
 More specifically, it serves instrumental to –More specifically, it serves instrumental to –
1.1. define the problem more narrowlydefine the problem more narrowly,,
2.2. establish the research questions,establish the research questions,
3.3. form research hypotheses,form research hypotheses,
4.4. establish a conceptual framework governing theestablish a conceptual framework governing the
research of concern and delineate the scope ofresearch of concern and delineate the scope of
works, andworks, and
5.5. compare and contrast the ongoing research withcompare and contrast the ongoing research with
other similar historical studies or policies.other similar historical studies or policies.

Relationship of Review of Literature toRelationship of Review of Literature to
Theory, Research, Education and PracticeTheory, Research, Education and Practice
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Research
PracticeEducation
Theory
Review ofReview of
LiteratureLiterature

Purposes of Literature ReviewPurposes of Literature Review
The overall purpose of literature review is to discover
knowledge.
For this, its purpose can be viewed in two-fold:For this, its purpose can be viewed in two-fold:
A.A.Research purposesResearch purposes
A.A.Non-research purposesNon-research purposes
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Research purposes of review of literatureResearch purposes of review of literature
1. Determines an appropriate research
design/method (instruments, data collection and
analysis methods) for answering the research
question.
2. Determines the need for replication of a well
designed study or refinement of a study.
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Non-research purposes of review of literature
1.1. Determines what is known about a subject, concept orDetermines what is known about a subject, concept or
problemproblem
2.2. Determines gaps, consistencies and inconsistencies aboutDetermines gaps, consistencies and inconsistencies about
a subject, concept or problema subject, concept or problem
3.3. Discovers unanswered questions about a subject, conceptDiscovers unanswered questions about a subject, concept
or problemor problem
4.4. Describes strengths and weaknesses of designs, methodsDescribes strengths and weaknesses of designs, methods
of inquiry and instruments used in earlier worksof inquiry and instruments used in earlier works
5.5. Discovers conceptual traditions used to examineDiscovers conceptual traditions used to examine
problemsproblems
6.6. Generates useful research questions or projects/activitiesGenerates useful research questions or projects/activities
for the disciplinefor the discipline
7.7. Promotes development of protocols and policies relatedPromotes development of protocols and policies related
to nursing practiceto nursing practice
8.8. Uncovers a new practice intervention, or gains supportUncovers a new practice intervention, or gains support
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Benefits of Literature ReviewBenefits of Literature Review
The learners of research methodology may benefit
significantly from review of literature to --
1.efficiently retrieve an adequate amount of scholarly
literature using computer and print resources,
2.critically evaluate data-based and conceptual
materials, and
3.critically evaluate a review of the literature (the
entire compilation of conceptual and data based
literature) based on accepted reviewing criteria.
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Literature Review SynonymousLiterature Review Synonymous
Conceptual literature Data-based literature
 Theoretical literature
 Scholarly non-research
literature
 Scholarly research
literature
 Review of the literature
articles
 Concept analysis
articles
 Empirical literature
 Scientific literature
 Professional research
literature
 Scholarly research
literature
 Company reports
 Other factual studies
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Uses of ROL in Quantitative ResearchUses of ROL in Quantitative Research
1. Development of Theoretical Framework of the
Study: Review of literature attempts to define the
concepts and terms in relation to the study.
2. Development of Problem Statement and
Hypotheses: Review of literature helps to determine
what is known and not known; to uncover gaps,
consistencies, or inconsistencies, and/or to reveal
unanswered questions about a subject, concept or
problem.
Meaning that it allows for the refinement of research
problems, research questions and hypotheses.
53

Uses of ROL in Quantitative ResearchUses of ROL in Quantitative Research
3. Establishing Research Method and Designs:3. Establishing Research Method and Designs:
Review of literature reveals strengths and weaknesses
of certain research methods and designs over
particular situations in replication with previous
research studies.
4. Establishing Outcome of Analysis (Findings,4. Establishing Outcome of Analysis (Findings,
Implications, and Recommendations):Implications, and Recommendations): Review of
literature serves instrumental in comparing and
contrasting the findings of the research in
consideration with that of earlier conducted studies
so that it helps establish a proper linkage as well as
uniqueness of the research in consideration.
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Sources of Review of LiteratureSources of Review of Literature
1. Primary source:1. Primary source: is written by the person(s) who
developed the theory or conducted the research.
2. Secondary source:2. Secondary source: is written by the person(s) other
than the individual who developed the theory or
conducted the research.
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The Role of Secondary SourcesThe Role of Secondary Sources
Two general reasons for using secondary sourcesTwo general reasons for using secondary sources
1. A primary sources is literally unavailable
2. A secondary source can provide different ways of
looking at an issue or problem
Secondary sources should not be overused!!Secondary sources should not be overused!!
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Pitfalls of Secondary SourcesPitfalls of Secondary Sources
 All theoretical concepts or aspects of the study and
definitions may not be always fully presented.
 If all concepts or aspects are included, theIf all concepts or aspects are included, the
definitions may be collapsed or paraphrased todefinitions may be collapsed or paraphrased to
such a degree that it no longer represents thesuch a degree that it no longer represents the
theoristtheorist’’s actual work.s actual work.
 The critique is based on the presentation of
incomplete or interpreted data that it may not
always be useful to the other users.
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2.2. Process of Review of Literature2.2. Process of Review of Literature
Step 1:Step 1: Identify the different sources of literature of theIdentify the different sources of literature of the
subject of inquiry.subject of inquiry.
Step 2:Step 2: Collect, choose and properly make the inventory ofCollect, choose and properly make the inventory of
literature for review.literature for review. Sometimes permission is required.Sometimes permission is required.
Step 3:Step 3: Develop a detailed bibliography of various literatureDevelop a detailed bibliography of various literature
collected.collected.
Step 4:Step 4: Review the literature and include it in the researchReview the literature and include it in the research
report manuscript.report manuscript.
Step 5:Step 5: Perform text citation using defined style guidelines.Perform text citation using defined style guidelines.
Step 6:Step 6: Develop references using defined style guidelines.Develop references using defined style guidelines.

Steps of Searching Literature and Making ReviewsSteps of Searching Literature and Making Reviews
Determine concept/issue/topic/problem
Conduct computer and library search
Remove irrelevant sources before printing
Organize sources from printout for retrieval
Retrieve relevant sources
Conduct preliminary reading and remove irrelevant sources
Critically read each source, summarize and critique each source
Synthesize critical summaries

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2.3. Components of Review of Literature2.3. Components of Review of Literature
Though review of literature may be performed in
almost all chapters of a study report, it is heavily used
in Chapter 2: Review of LiteratureChapter 2: Review of Literature itself. This chapter
will generally comprise of FOUR components.
2.1.2.1. Review of Theoretical PerspectivesReview of Theoretical Perspectives
2.2.2.2. Review of Related Policy DevelopmentsReview of Related Policy Developments
2.3.2.3. Review of Related StudiesReview of Related Studies
2.4.2.4. Development of Conceptual or TheoreticalDevelopment of Conceptual or Theoretical
Framework of the StudyFramework of the Study

Organizing the Review of LiteratureOrganizing the Review of Literature
1.1. Topical OrderTopical Order:: Organize by main topics or issues;
emphasize the relationship of the issues to the main
“problem”.
2.2. Chronological Order:Chronological Order: Organize the literature by the dates
the research was published.
3.3. Problem-Cause-Solution Order:Problem-Cause-Solution Order: Organize the review so
that it moves from the problem to the solution.
4.4. General-to-Specific Order:General-to-Specific Order: Also called the funnel
approach; Examine broad-based research first and then
focus on specific studies that relate to the topic.
5.5. Specific-to-General Order:Specific-to-General Order: Try to make discuss specific
research studies so conclusions can be drawn.

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2.4. Documenting the ROL Using APA Style Guidelines2.4. Documenting the ROL Using APA Style Guidelines
Follow the separately provided guidelines for –
1.1.Language efficiencyLanguage efficiency
2.2.Document formattingDocument formatting
3.3.Techniques of text citation of various sources ofTechniques of text citation of various sources of
reviewreview
4.4.ReferencingReferencing

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2.5. General Guidelines for Performing ROL2.5. General Guidelines for Performing ROL
1.1. Introduce the literature review by pointing out theIntroduce the literature review by pointing out the
major research topic that will be discussed.major research topic that will be discussed.
2.2. Identify the broad problem area but do not be tooIdentify the broad problem area but do not be too
global. For example, no need to discuss the historyglobal. For example, no need to discuss the history
of the origin of the word ‘motivation’ whileof the origin of the word ‘motivation’ while
reviewing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.reviewing Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
3.3. Discuss the general importance of your topic forDiscuss the general importance of your topic for
those who may be interested in your field.those who may be interested in your field.
4.4. Do not be too harsh against the scholars whileDo not be too harsh against the scholars while
performing negative critique.performing negative critique.
5.5. Maintain coherence and precision of discussions.Maintain coherence and precision of discussions.
6.6. Follow the given guidelines in each step of writing,Follow the given guidelines in each step of writing,
citation and referencing.citation and referencing.

Some Critiquing Criteria for ROLSome Critiquing Criteria for ROL
1.It should mainly include primary sources.
2.Review of literature must uncover gaps or
inconsistencies.
3.It should reflect researcher’s critical thinking.
4.All the relevant concepts and variables should be
included.
5.Summary of each reviewed study should reflect the
essential components of the study designs used.
6.The critique of each review should include
strengths, weaknesses, or limitations of the
designs; conflicts; and gaps or inconsistencies in
information in relation to the area of interest.
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Some Critiquing Criteria for ROLSome Critiquing Criteria for ROL
7. There should be a blend of review of conceptual and
empirical data-based literature.
8. For each scholarly literature, a written synthesis should be
developed.
9. The synthesis summary should follow a logical sequence
leading the reader to why there is the need for the
particular research project.
10.The organization of the reviewed studies, i.e.,
chronologically, or according to concepts/variables, or
type/design of study should follow logically, enhancing the
ability of the reader to evaluate the need for the particular
research project.
11. The review of literature should follow the purpose of the
research project. 65

Variables
MeaningMeaning
Known as a property of proposition being studiedKnown as a property of proposition being studied
Also known as the constructs of a propositionAlso known as the constructs of a proposition
A symbol to which we assign numerals or valuesA symbol to which we assign numerals or values
Numerical value assigned to a variable is based onNumerical value assigned to a variable is based on
its propertiesits properties

Three General Examples of VariablesThree General Examples of Variables
1. Dichotomous Variables1. Dichotomous Variables
These variables are so called because they haveThese variables are so called because they have
TWO values, reflecting presence or absence of aTWO values, reflecting presence or absence of a
property.property.
For exampleFor example: pass or fail, exists or does not exist,: pass or fail, exists or does not exist,
employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.employed - unemployed, male - female, yes - no.
The dichotomous variables can be assigned with aThe dichotomous variables can be assigned with a
numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis purpose.

2. Discrete Variables2. Discrete Variables
These are categorical variables.These are categorical variables.
For example, the demographic variables race orFor example, the demographic variables race or
religion are the examples of discrete variables.religion are the examples of discrete variables.
Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can beReligion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain can be
assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, and 4
respectively.respectively.
The numerical values assigned to these variablesThe numerical values assigned to these variables
will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.will be of absolute nature; not like 3.5, or 4.7.

3. Continuous Variables3. Continuous Variables
These variables take on values with a given rangeThese variables take on values with a given range
or, in some cases, an infinite set.or, in some cases, an infinite set.
For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100,For example, test scores may range from 0 - 100,
age may be 2.5 years, present income of a personage may be 2.5 years, present income of a person
could be Rs. 15000, you may disclose your propertycould be Rs. 15000, you may disclose your property
worth more than Rs. 500,000,000.worth more than Rs. 500,000,000.

Sample vs. Population
Population = collection of ALL possible
observations
Sample = subset of a population
Random Sample
representative of a population
all observations have equal chance of
being selected

Why Do We Use Samples?
Cost
Time
Inaccessibility of the population
Accuracy
Destruction of the observations

Steps in Developing a Sample Plan
Step 1: Define the
Population of
Interest
Step 1: Define the
Population of
Interest
Step 2: Choose
Data Collection
Method
Step 2: Choose
Data Collection
Method
Step 3: Choose
Sampling Frames
Step 3: Choose
Sampling Frames
Step 4: Select a
Sampling Method
Step 4: Select a
Sampling Method
Step 5: Determine
Sample Size
Step 5: Determine
Sample Size
Step 6: Develop and
Specify Operational
Plan
Step 6: Develop and
Specify Operational
Plan
Step 7: Execute
Operational Sampling
Plan
Step 7: Execute
Operational Sampling
Plan

Sampling Methods
• Probability vs. Nonprobability
• Probability
– members in the population have a known chance
(probability) of being selected into the sample
• Nonprobability
– the probability of selecting members from the
population is not known

Sampling Design Process
Define Population
Determine Sampling Frame
Determine Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience
Judgmental
Quota
Snow-ball
Determine Appropriate Sample Size
Execute Sampling DesignFebruary 21, 2016 74rijalcpr@gmail.com

Classification of Sampling Methods
Sampling
Methods
Sampling
Methods
Probability
Samples
Probability
Samples
Simple
Random
Simple
Random
ClusterCluster
SystematicSystematic StratifiedStratified
Non-
probability
Non-
probability
QuotaQuotaJudgmentJudgment
ConvenienceConvenience SnowballSnowball

Data
Meaning
Data are the units, or, numbers, or facts that are
generated through observation.
Data can be qualitative as well as quantitative.
Considered as the backbone for the evidence of every
findings and decision alternatives in the research.

Data Objectives
Data objectives are derived from the research
objectives and comprise of what we have observed to
be lacking in the example.
Their determination mainly rests on the researcher,
to translate what the decision maker wants into a
specific description of the needed data.

General Qualities Required
1.The measurement should be relevant and adequate
to the problem faced to provide key guidance in
decision making.
2.The data must be accurate in both --
i. Validity: Measure what they are supposed to,
and
ii. Reliability: On repeating the same method,
should
give the same results.
3. Data should be obtained quickly enough at an
affordable cost.

Nature of Data
1. Facts:
Include the measurements of anything that actually
exists or has existed.
Facts, generally describe tangible things, they also
can be intangibles.
They generally originate as the demographic,
sociological, psychographic, or behavioral types.

2. Knowledge:
That is what people know.
The information true or false, exists or does not exist, etc.
Example
Consumers awareness about a product or a brand.
3. Opinion
How people perceive something.
What they believe about attitudes.
The mental sets or predisposition to act in some manner.
Example
Consumer perception regarding good or bad.

4. Intentions:
The acts that people have in mind to do.
The expectations of their behavior
Example: Consumer interest upon a certain retailer.
5. Motives:
Internal forces that cause people to behave as they
do.
Motives may be instrumental ideas for identifying
the subjects about which the people will speak
freely.
Example: A certain consumer never liking wine.

Functions of Data
1. Causation
2. Pay off
Here, ‘X’ is the causation and ‘Y’ is the pay off.
3. Description: Determination of causal variables in the
sample. E.g.: How many of them are ‘X’.
4. Identification: Identification of the particular source.
e.g.: The name of person who took an interview, or made an
observation, name, address, and locations of subjects, etc.
Y = f(X)
‘X’ Causes ‘Y’

Types of Data
1. Primary Vs. Secondary
Primary Data
That originate from primary sources and are based on
observation or investigation or direct questioning.
* Observation Method
* Interview Method
* Questionnaires
* Projective Techniques
* Content Analysis

1. Primary Vs. Secondary
Secondary Data
That originate from secondary sources.
Data already available, collected and analyzed by
someone else.
* Publications
* Books
* Journals
* Magazines and Newspapers
* Reports
* Collateral Materials
* PR Messages

2. Qualitative Vs. Quantitative
Qualitative Data: Psychological, perceptual, or conceptual
data that is not counted in numbers, rather coded as ‘good or
bad’, ‘interesting or boring’ etc.
Quantitative Data: Number based facts and figures.
Frequency of occurrence.
3. Personal Reporting
Data based on individual observation and reporting.
Can be qualitative as well as quantitative.
Can be primary/secondary
Always primary

Sources of Data
1. Internal
Data developed or gathered, maintained, and
preserved by the organization itself.
MIS is the best source for internal records.
MIS comprises of FOUR major components;
Management Research Systems (MRS), Internal
Database Systems (IDS), Management Intelligence
Systems (MIS), and Analytical Information Systems
(AIS).
Annual reports, collateral materials, press releases
etc.
Primary

2. External
* Data generated from the published reports of
various bureaus, and public surveys.
Example:
EDIFY International conducting a salt consumption
behavior research study in Nepal, and the same
report findings to be used in other related future
researches.
Use of CBS - Nepal reports for various research
purposes.
Secondary

Data Collection Methods
1. Literature Reviews
* A secondary method of data collection.
* Facts gathered in the basis of reviews of various
publications, articles, journals, books, collateral
materials, reports, etc.
* Useful in providing the evidence to the results of
the primary observation.
* Mostly used in understanding the theoretical
phenomenon.
* Very essential in qualitative studies.

2. Census
* Census represents the study of universe.
* Mostly conducted by the governments in long
periodical basis.
* Each and every component of the population is the
subject of the study.
* Most costly approach of data collection.

3. Survey
* An alternative to census.
* Sample based study; study/observation through
population representation.
* Mostly used by the researchers.
* A primary method of data collection.

4. Focus Group Observation
* A approach of group observation.
* A source for primary data collection.
* Useful in perceptual studies.
* The groups may comprise of 6 to 10 people.
* The issues are discussed by cross questioning and
sharing their views.
* Suitable in case of new product launch and testing.
Can be direct or
indirect, structured
or unstructured

5. Experiments
* A primary method of data collection.
* Can be field or lab experiment based.
* Mostly conducted by using the control groups.
* Most useful in new product testing.
* May be very costly incase of wrong selection of
control groups.
* Sometimes conducted by the help of various
physical tests; eye movements, pupil movements,
skin stimuli etc.

6. Interviews
* A popular method of primary data collection.
* Data collected in the basis of personal interaction
with the respondents.
* Can be well-structured or less-structured.
* Useful when small size of observation is enough for
data collection.
* The individuals/subjects are the source of study.

Data Reduction and Analysis
Data Reduction Process
Step I: Establishing field controls
Step II: Editing of data
Step III: Coding the data
Step IV: Transcribing
Step V: Creating new variables
Step VI: Calculating and
summarizing
statistics
Data Analysis
Descriptive analysis
Bivariate analysis
Multivariate analysis

Presentation of a Report
I. Prefatory Part
Title Page
Signatory Page
Copy Rights
Acknowledgements
Executive Summary
Table of Contents
List of Tables and Graphs
List of Abbreviations

II. Main Body
Introduction
Review of Literature
Research Methodology
Data Reduction, Presentation, and Analysis
Summary of Key Findings
Recommendations and Conclusions
III. Supplementary Part
Bibliography or References
Annextures
Appendixes

Ethical Issues Related to Research Function
Nature and Content of Ethical Issues
Participant Treatment
Issues
* Purpose shouldn't be
to sell merchandise
* Anonymity must be
protected
----------------------------
Ultraviolet ink
Hidden tape recorders
One-way mirrors
Fake long distance calls
Fake research firm
Right to safety
Right to be informed
Right to privacy
Right to choice
Client Treatment
Issues
* Methods used and
results should be
accurately reported
----------------------------
Confidentiality
Unqualified researcher
Proprietary information
Unnecessary research
Researcher Treatment
Issues
* Should not disseminate
conclusions that are
inconsistent with data
* Should not solicit
designs and deliver to
another for execution
----------------------------
Excessive requests
Reneging on promises
Availability of funds

Research methodology

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