The document discusses various types of sedimentary structures classified based on their formation process. Primary structures form during deposition without external forces, while secondary structures form after deposition due to forces. Examples of primary structures include ripple marks, cross-bedding and flaser bedding. Secondary structures include sole marks, tool marks and groove marks formed by erosion. Chemical structures also form via processes like dissolution and precipitation. Sedimentary structures provide clues about depositional environments and sediment transport directions.
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
Lithostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
Misson Choudhury, Budding Geologists ,graduated from utkal university odisha,now pursuing M.sc applied geology in Bangalore university ..love to geologic mapping,drawing ,climbing ,tracking..
The current ppt discusses the different types of lineations formed due to deformation.
Lineations are genetically related to the foliation planes on which they occur, particularly where both are shaped by mineral orientations. Therefore, the planar and linear fabrics are both together aspects of the same three-dimensional geometry, which is related to the shape of the finite strain ellipsoid or,
more important still, to the history of incremental strains.
Sedimentary texture can be useful in interpreting the mechanisms and environment of deposition. It also has major control over the porosity and permeability of sediment.
Lithostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
Misson Choudhury, Budding Geologists ,graduated from utkal university odisha,now pursuing M.sc applied geology in Bangalore university ..love to geologic mapping,drawing ,climbing ,tracking..
The current ppt discusses the different types of lineations formed due to deformation.
Lineations are genetically related to the foliation planes on which they occur, particularly where both are shaped by mineral orientations. Therefore, the planar and linear fabrics are both together aspects of the same three-dimensional geometry, which is related to the shape of the finite strain ellipsoid or,
more important still, to the history of incremental strains.
Sedimentary texture can be useful in interpreting the mechanisms and environment of deposition. It also has major control over the porosity and permeability of sediment.
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological Structures
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Division of Structures
تقسيم للتراكيب الجيولوجيه
A- Primary structures
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Burrows
B- Secondary Structures
Folds
Faults
Joints
Unconformities
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Geologic structure is any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints, and faults.
اى شكل فى الصخر ينتج من خلال عملية التشويه مثل : الصدوع والطيات
هى التشققات والتصدعات الضخمة والالتواءات العنيفة التى تشوه صخور القشرة الارضية .
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains .
Division of Structures
• Primary (or sedimentary) structures: such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, and mud cracks form in sediments during or shortly after deposition.
هى التراكيب الناتجة من تدخل العمليات الخارجية أثناء الترسيب
• Secondary structures: is that structures formed after the formations of any kind of rocks, such as folds, faults, or unconformities.
Primary structures
They are any structures in sedimentary rock formed at or shortly after the time of deposition: such as:
هى الاشكال التى تتخلف بالصخور تحت تأثير عوامل مناخية وبيئية خاصة مثل الجفاف والحرارة وتأثير الرياح والتيارات المائية وغيرها وبدون أى تدخل من جانب القوى والحركات الارضية أمثلة ذلك:
Ripple marks
علامات النيم: هي تموجات رملية صغيرة تنشأ على سطح الطبقات الرسوبية بواسطة حركة الماء أو الهواء و تكون حروف علامات النيم متعامدة على اتجاه الحركة.
They are wavelike (undulating) structures produced in granular sediment such as sand by unidirectional wind and water currents or by oscillating wave currents.
Wind and current ripples. (Asymmetric
Wave ripples. (Symmetric
Mud cracks
التشققات فى الرواسب الطينية : حيث ينكمش سطح الرسوبيات الطينية مخلفة شقوقا مميزة فى فترات الجفاف
Mud crack is a crack in clay-rich sediment that has dried out.
Cross bedding
التطبق المتقاطع هو النمط الذي تسلكه الرسوبيات الجديدة المتراكمة عند تأثرها بأي من التيارات المائية أو الهوائية. عندما تستق
Process of Transport and Generation of Sedimentary StructuresAkshayRaut51
sedimentary structures ,sedimentary rocks ,weathering and erosion ,sediment transport mechanism ,hjulstrom curve ,types of flow of sediments ,reynold number ,froude number ,laminations ,bedding plane ,cross bedding ,herringbone structure ,ripple marks ,graded bedding ,sole marks ,mud cracks ,ball and pillow structures ,stylolites ,concretion ,nodules
Ripple marks are a series of small ridges produced especially on sand by the action of wind, a current of water, or waves which are very important sedimentary structure for geological perspective.
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional of the rock units with respect to their deformational histories, Structure is spatial and geometrical configuration of rock components.
Structures are classified into two types:
Primary structures.
Secondary structures
Primary structures
Structures that form during deposition or crystallization of the rock, are the result of two processes:
Settling of solid particles from fluid medium in which they have been suspended, in most of the sedimentary rocks.
Crystallization of mineral grains from a liquid in which they have been dissolved as in igneous rocks.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
2. Definition: These are the structures that are formed by the
sediment layers in the way they are deposited over each
other.
Classified on two approaches, one is morphologic, the other
genetic.
A purely morphologic classification is rather artificial and leads
to grouping of unrelated structures.
Genetic classification group’s structures according to the
process involved in their formation, such as, biogenetic,
hydrodynamic or rheologic.
3. Importance of Sedimentary Structure:
Study of sedimentary structures is important
because they are the most valuable features
for interpreting depositional environment.
We know a lot about how most structures are
formed, so finding them in the rocks can tell
you a lot about the conditions of deposition.
They are much more useful than textural
things like grain-size distribution and grain
shape.
12. Massive bedding Uses:
Shows the depositional environment
changed from a regularly repeating
depositional system to one with very little
change over time.
13. Graded bedding: It is bedding in which the
particles are sorted according to density,
size and shape.
14. Graded bedding types:
Normal Grading: If the particle size
decreases upward, the bed is said to be
normally graded.
Reversely Graded: If the particle size
increases upward, the bed is said to be
reversely graded or inversely graded.
15.
16. fluvial:Diagram illustrating the formation of
a graded bed (turbidite). Slope failure
produces turbulent suspension that
moves/accelerates downslope. Once it
reaches the flat deep sea regions, it slows
down due to friction, and gradually the
sediment settles out of suspension. Larger
grain sizes settle out first, and then
successively smaller ones.
17.
18. Use:indicator of upward and downward
direction in deposition
Can be useful for mapping purpose
Can also be useful for marking top and
bottom of strata.
19. Ripple Marks: Wavy feature formed by
wind, wave or current. Streamlines lie
parallel to a flat bed but where there is an
irregularity such as a step in the bed
caused by an accumulation of grains, the
streamlines converge and there is an
increased transport rate.
20.
21. Ripple Marks types:
Asymmetrical definition: These are created a one
way current( e.g. river) or the wind ( e.g.
desert).This create ripple with still pointed crests
and rounded troughs, it inclined in the direction of
the current.
Current ripples do not form in sediment coarser
than 0.6 mm in diameter (coarse sand).
Current ripples can develop in almost any
environment river, delta, shoreline, offshore shelf
and deep sea. • On the basis of shape, three types
of current ripple are common: straight-crested,
sinuous or undulatory, and linguoid ripples
22.
23.
24. Wind ripples and dunes: These are
asymmetric structures like current ripples.
Wind ripples typically have long, straight,
parallel crests with bifurcations like
waveformed ripples.
25.
26. Ripple Marks types:
Symmetric definition: They are formed by
two way current, often found on beaches.
They are wave dominating. Nearly pointed
crest and rounded trough and it doesn’t
inclined in the direction of the wave. non-
cohesive sediment, medium silt to coarse
sand grades, and they are typically
symmetrical in shape.
27.
28.
29. Tidal environment and eolin environment.
Use: direction of the flow of air or water
Moreover it also tells the stregnth of wind
or water.
30. Cross bedding: It is formed on inclined surface during
deposition by crossing a bed to another bed. The set
height is generally greater than 6 cm and the individual
cross-beds are many millimeters to 1 cm or more in
thickness.
Most cross-stratification arises from the down current
migration of ripples, dunes and sand-waves when
sediment is moved up the stoss side and then
avalanches down the lee-side of the structure.
Foresets- steeply dipping parts of the cross-strata,
have either angular or tangential contacts with
horizontal.
Bottom sets- The lower less steeply dipping parts.
31.
32.
33.
34. Cross bedding: Common two types are,
Tabular and wedge cross-bedding consists
of mostly planar cross-beds which have an
angular contact with the basal surface of
the set. On the bedding surface, planar
cross-beds are seen as straight lines.
Trough cross-beds usually have tangential
bases, and in bedding-plane view the
cross-beds have a nested, curved
appearance.
35.
36. Use: The inclination of the cross-beds
indicates the transport direction and the
current flow (from left to right in our
diagram).The style and size of cross
bedding can be used to estimate current
velocity, and orientation of cross-beds
allows determination direction of paleoflow.
37.
38. Flaser bedding: It is a bedding in which
high energy environment is involved which
forms a bedding pattern in which sand is a
dominating layer which is later infilled by a
mud layer.
These structures often are considered to
form mostly in tidally influenced
environments.
39.
40. Lenticular: the bedding which is opposite to flaser bedding in
which mud is the dominating layer and a thin layer of sand
deposited at trough. Its bedding display is a 'lens-like' shape.
Formed during periods of slack water, mud suspended in the
water is deposited on top of small formations of sand once the
water's velocity has reached zero.
They are commonly found in high-energy environments such
as the intertidal and supratidal zones.
Geologists use lenticular bedding to show evidence of tidal
rhythm, tidal currents and tidal slack, in a particular
environment.
41.
42. Convolute: Convolute bedding forms when
complex folding and crumpling of beds or
laminations occur.
Beds of fine sand, up to a meter thick,
deposited rapidly by such events as turbidity
currents.
The beds have planar lower and also upper
contacts, but the bed is internally folded into
broad synclines and sharp to dome-shaped or
even mushroom-shaped anti-clines, which
usually die out upward to planarity at the
upper contact.
43.
44. The most common places for Convolute
bedding to materialize are in deep water
basins with turbidity currents, rivers,
deltas, and shallow-marine areas with
storm impacted conditions. This is because
these environments have high deposition
rates, which allows the sediments to pack
loosely
45. Sole marks : Erosional marks formed by
scouring of bed by unidirectional flows.
Forms in marine environment, This is
usually a sediment gravity flow in a
moderately deep marine environment but
strong currents in other situations can
make sole marks as well. Used for paleo
flow direction.
46.
47. Sole Marks types:
Flute Casts: Geometrical features produced
on a sediment bed by erosion by a strong
current. Flutes are heel-shaped hollows,
scoured into mud bottoms. Each hollow is
generally infilled by sand, contiguous with the
overlying bed.
As the current velocity declines, flute erosion
ceases and the hollows are buried beneath a
bed of sand.
Formed in shallow marine environments.
48. Uses of Flute Casts:
Indicators of turbidites, shallow marine and
non-marine environments.
49. Tool Marks: By mechanical disruption of
the bed by large objects carried by a
strong current. Tool marks are erosional
bottom structures.
They are irregular in shape, both in plan
and cross-section, though they are roughly
oriented parallel with the paleocurrent
50.
51. fluvial deposits and marine storm deposits
They are valuable indicators of
paleocurrent direction and also give some
information about the nature of the clay
bottom and the sediment transport
mechanism operating in the flow that
deposited the overlying sand.
52. Groove Marks:
They are long, thin, and straight erosional
marks.
Contains mud and overlain by sand.
Few millimeters deep or wide, but they
may continue uninterrupted for a meter of
more.
They are developed in downcurrent
situation than flutes.
53.
54. groove mark A linear groove, cut in a
muddy substrate by the dragging of an
object through the sediment by flowing
water. The orientation of the groove will be
parallel to the current direction.
Subsequent infilling of the groove by
sediment will result in a groove cast being
preserved on the base of the overlying
bed.
55. Balls and Pillows: In more extreme
loading, whole masses of the overlying
bed sink down into the underlying material.
Masses end up with concave-up
stratification that is terminated abruptly
around the margins of the sunken mass.
This called ball-and-pillow structure
earthquakes, erupting volcanoes,
or meteoric impacts can create these
formations.
56.
57. Definition: These structures are formed by the chemical
disruption of the sediments.
Types: Solution Structures:
Stylolites
Mud cracks
Vugs
Accretionary Structures:
Nodules
Concretions
Crystal aggregates
Veinlets
Color Banding
58. Stylolites: Consisting of a series of relatively small,
alternating, interlocked, tooth like columns of stone; it
is common in limestone, marble, and similar rock.
Insoluble minerals, such as clays, pyrite and oxides,
remain within the stylolites and make them visible.
They occur most commonly in homogeneous rocks,
carbonates, cherts, sandstones, but they can be found
in certain igneous rocks and ice.
Their size vary from microscopic contacts between two
grains (microstylolites) to large structures up to 20 m in
length and up to 10 m in amplitude in ice.
Stylolites usually form parallel to bedding, because of
overburden pressure.
59. Formed by the result of chemical solution
by groundwater circulating through semi-
consolidated or consolidated, hardened
rock.
60.
61. Mud cracks: These structures form when
the clay-rich sediments found in muds dry
and shrink. As the sediment shrinks crack
begin to form in the sediment creating
polygonal patterns called mud cracks.
Mud cracks form in any environment that
allows for the wetting and subsequent
drying of sediment such as marshes,
seasonal rivers, or lake shores.
62.
63. Use: They indicate that the mud
accumulated in shallow water that
periodically dried up.
Also tells us about the environment
whether it is arid or semi arid.
64. Vugs: They are small to medium-sized cavities
inside rock that may be formed through a variety of
processes.
Most commonly cracks and fissures opened by
tectonic activity (folding and faulting) are partially filled
by quartz, calcite, and other secondary minerals.
Vugs may also result when mineral crystals or fossils
inside a rock matrix are later removed through erosion
or dissolution processes, leaving behind irregular
voids.
Fine crystals are often found in vugs where the open
space allows the free development of external crystal
form.
65.
66. Nodules: In sedimentology and geology, a
nodule is small, irregularly rounded knot,
mass, or lump of a mineral or mineral
aggregate that typically has a contrasting
composition, such as a pyrite nodule in coal,
a chert nodule in limestone, or a phosphorite
nodule in marine shale, from the enclosing
sediment or sedimentary rock.
Minerals that typically form nodules include
calcite, chert, apatite (phosphorite), anhydrite,
and pyrite.
67.
68. Concretions: A concretion is a hard, compact
mass of matter formed by the precipitation of
mineral cement within the spaces between
particles, and is found in sedimentary rock or
soil. Concretions are often ovoid or spherical
in shape, although irregular shapes also
occur.
There is an important distinction to draw
between concretions and nodules.
Concretions are formed from mineral
precipitation around some kind of nucleus
while a nodule is a replacement body.
69.
70. Color Banding: They are formed in sedimentary rocks
when some variation occur in the mineral composition
or due to the cementing material present in the rock.
Liesegang bands are colored bands of cement
observed in sedimentary rocks that typically cut-across
bedding.
These secondary sedimentary structures exhibit bands
of minerals that are arranged in a regular repeating
pattern.
Frequent occurrence in sedimentary rocks, rings
composed of iron oxide can also occur in permeable
igneous and metamorphic rocks that have been
chemically weathered.
71.
72. Biogenic sedimentary structures: Biogenic
structures result from bioturbation, the
post-depositional disturbance of sediments
by living organisms. This can occur by the
organisms moving across the surface of
sediment or burrowing into the first few
centimeters.
73. Tracks and trails: These features result
from organisms moving across the
sediment as they walk, crawl, or drag their
body parts through the sediment.
74.
75. Molds: Reproduction of the inside or
outside surface of a living thing.
Cast : Duplicate of the original organism;
usually formed by replacement of inside of
living thing
76. Crawling traces: trails, uncomplicated pattern
linear
Grazing traces: more complicated surface trails,
symmetrical or ordered pattern.
Resting traces: impression of where animal rested
during life (but not a fossil mold).
Dwelling structures: simple to complex burrow
systems, burrows can be lined or small ball of
mass.
Feeding structures: simple to complex burrow
systems commonly with well organized and
defined branching pattern indicating systematic
reworking of sediment.
77.
78. Burrow Marks:
Any organism that burrows into soft
sediment can disturb the sediment and
destroy many of the structures.
If burrowing is not extensive, the holes
made by such organisms can later become
filled with water that deposits new
sediment in the holes.
Such burrow marks can be excellent top
and bottom indicators.
79.
80. Boring : A boring is any biogenic structure
that involves erosion of an already
consolidated substrate by an organism; the
process of forming a boring by an
organism is bioerosion.
81.
82. Bioturbation: One of the agents of organic
weathering, bioturbation is the disturbance
of the soil or sediment by living things.
Bioturbation aids the penetration of air and
water and loosens sediment
83.
84. Stromatolites: They are organically formed,
laminated structures composed of fine silt or
clay-size sediment or, more rarely, sand-size
sediment. • Most ancient stromatolites occur
in limestones however, have also been
reported in siliciclastic sediments.
They are organosedimentary structures
formed largely by the trapping and binding
activities of blue-green algae
The laminated structure forms because fine
sediment is trapped in the very fine filaments
of algal mats.