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1. Paper V Information Sources and Services QP
Karnataka State Open University
B.Lis.I.Sc 2015 August
1) What is Primary Source?
Primary sources are those sources which contain original material that has been published, reported or
recorded for the first time and has not been interpreted, commented upon, summarised, translated or
evaluated by a secondary party. Primary sources include new raw data, new interpretation of previously
known facts or idea, any new observation or experiment, etc. These materials tend to be most timely and
usually take the form of an article in a periodical, a monograph, research report, patent, dissertation, reprint
of an article or some other work. By its very nature the primary source of information is widely scattered
and it is difficult to locate the information contained in it. Following is the selected list of primary sources
of information
 Primary periodicals
 Newspapers
 Technical Reports
 Dissertations
 Conference Papers
 Patents
 Standards
 Trade and Product Bulletins, etc
2) Name any two Standards.
3) Who is Publisher of ‘India – A reference Annual’?
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1961
4) Name any two National Bibliographies.
British National Bibliography and Indian National Bibliography
5) What is an abstracting periodical?
According to Allent Kent “an abstract is a summary of a publication or articles accompanied by an adequate
bibliographical description to enable the publication or article to be traced.
H. M. Weisman defines “the abstract is an announcement medium whose objectives is to provide knowledge
of and an ordered and logical access to new primary literature”.
Thus an abstract can be defined as an abbreviated, accurate representation of the significant content of a
document consisting scope, purpose, method used, kinds of treatment results and findings, interpretation of
the result by the author, argument, etc which is usually accompanied by an adequate bibliographical
description to enable to trace the original document.
An abstracting periodical is “a regularly issued compilation of concise summaries of
i) Significant articles (often in a very limited subject field) that appear in current primary source journal
and

2. ii) of important new research monographs, reports, patent and other primary source publication in that
field”.
Example: Library and Information Science Abstract, London, Library Association, 1950-, Bimonthly. Indian
Science Abstract, Delhi, Insdoc, Vol. 1-, 1965-.
Besides the above sources, list of periodicals, list of theses, dissertations, location and finding list etc also
serves as bibliographical sources.
6) What is information Service?
Basic/general information can be provided by librarians, staff, or trained student assistants - in person, by
telephone, and by email either sent to individual librarians or staff or received through Ask a Librarian.
Information can also be conveyed through signage, through printed or online finding aids and guides, and
such electronic resources as the Library Catalog, online indexes and other basic reference tools, and the
Libraries' Web pages. Information services address the more routine information needs of patrons,
including:
 Library holdings and bibliographic citations
 Library policies (e.g., Admission to the libraries, borrowing, interlibrary loan)
 Library hours/directions
 Ready reference (e.g., Brief definitions, brief statistical data, other concise factual information)
Reference Service - Reference service is provided by all the Rutgers libraries. Professional librarians
provide the most in-depth service; highly trained staff or graduate assistants under the supervision of
professional librarians may provide other levels of service. Reference service may take place at the
reference desk, in private consultations with reference specialists, by telephone, by correspondence, by
email either to individual librarians or staff or through Ask a Librarian, or by instant messaging, text
messaging, or other information delivery options.
Reference librarians are also involved in the development and implementation of printed and online finding
aids and research guides, the selection and implementation of automated reference systems, services, and
user interfaces designed to support independent research and end-user searching.
Reference Service vs. Information Service
Reference Service Information Service
Traditional service Non-traditional service
Emphasis to provide documents Emphasis to provide information
User is given the material or directed to locate the
material
Attempt is made to provide exact
information
Aim is to instruct the user Less concerned towards instructing the user
Service provided on demand Service provided in anticipation
Passive service: library staff waits for the user to
approach and make demand
Active service: library staff does not wait
for the user to come but provide service to
keep user well informed

3. 7) Difference between ‘reference service’ and ‘referral service’
Referral service – A type of reference service in which an information seeker is directed to an agency or
expert outside the library wherefrom the information may be obtained.
Whenever the information required by the library user is either not available in the library or is not within
the subject expertise of a particular library, then the users are usually directed to sources outside the
library, where they would find the required information. Outside source may be a person and/or an
organization or an agency. Such service is called referral service.
8) Expand NASSDOC.
National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC), a constituent unit of the Indian Council of
Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established in the year 1970.The primary objective of the
NASSDOC is to provide library and information support services to social science researchers. It is
considered to be one of the largest repositories of bibliographical databases in the area of social sciences.
Facilities available at NASSDOC
 Documentation, Library and Reference Service;
 Collection of unpublished doctoral dissertations, research project reports, current and old
volumes of social science journals of Indian and foreign origin;
 Literature Search Service from digital databases, Online database and offline databases;
 Bibliography on Demand;
 E-resources for ICSSR Research Institutes and Regional Centres;
 Continuing Education Programme;
 Professional Skill Development & Networking;
 Current Awareness Service;
 Document Delivery Service is provided by procuring books and journals on Inter-library loan or
by photocopying selected portions of the documents;
 Internet facility to access e-resources in social sciences;
 ICSSR Publications Sales and Distribution.
9) Define User Study.
Such studies try to find out relative use of different channels in response to questions like, "Where would
you search for information?" or "How did you find the reference?" Such studies have found that the
common channel used by people include personal recommendations, abstracting and indexing services,
[finding information] by chance, regular perusal of journals, etc.
10) State any two objectives of NISCAIR.
National Institute of Science Communication and Information Resources (NISCAIR), New Delhi, came into
existence on 30 September 2002 after the merger of National Institute of Science Communication
(NISCOM) and Indian National Scientific Documentation Centre (INSDOC). Both NISCOM and
INSDOC, the two premier institutes of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), were
devoted to dissemination and documentation of Scientific and Technological (S&T) information.

4. Mission and Objectives
 To provide formal linkages of communication among the scientific community in the form of
research journals in different areas of S&T;
 To disseminate S&T information to general public, particularly school students in order to
inculcate interest in science among them;
 To collect, collate and disseminate information on plant, animal and mineral wealth of the
country;
 To harness information technology applications in information management with particular
reference to science communication and modernizing libraries;
 To act as a facilitator in furthering the economic, social, industrial, scientific and commercial
development by providing timely access to relevant and accurate information;
 To develop human resources in science communication, library, documentation and
information science and S&T information management systems and services; and
 To collaborate with international institutions and organizations having objectives and goals
similar to those of NISCAIR.
Information Products and Services
 Bibliometric Service
 Contents, Abstracts, and Photocopy Service (CAPS)
 Foreign Language Translation Service
 Document Copy Supply Service
 Literature Search Service
 Human Resource Development (HRD)
 Short-term Training Programmes
11) What are the primary sources? Explain the importance of periodicals. A periodical is publication such
as a magazine, journal, or newspaper. They’re called periodicals because they’re published at periodic
intervals, i.e. daily, weekly, monthly, etc. They are extremely important sources of information and are
almost always included in research projects on any topic because:
 They offer the most recent discussions and opinions, especially on scientific, technological, and
political topics.
 Topics too new or esoteric to be in a book or encyclopedia might be found in periodicals.
 Many periodicals are grounded in a certain political or ideological stance. Searching for
periodical articles, therefore, will expose you to differing viewpoints, especially on controversial
issues.
 Periodical articles are more concise and narrowly focused than books. Viewpoints and
discussions that don’t warrant an entire book can often be found in periodicals.
 Scholarly periodical articles offer references to other books and articles that might be relevant to
your topic.
 Periodicals provide a historical record of past ideas, opinions, accomplishments, and social
problems.
12) What is an Encyclopedia? Discuss the salient features new Encyclopedia Britannica.

5. 13) Define Patent and explain Patent as source of information. Answered.
A patent is a "grant given by the state in the form of a certificate for disclosing an invention by which certain exclusive
rights are conferred on the patentee (proprietor) for a limited period" (Subbaram). A patent like any other property
can be bought and sold, assigned or licensed. The expression "term of patent" refers to the period for which the
exclusive right in the invention covered in a patent can be exercised by the patentee. This period varies from country
to country. The grant of a patent for an invention is based on scientific and technical details, which are contained in a
document called specification.
For a thorough understanding of the term ' patent', it is necessary to differentiate it from other related terms
trademark, design and copyright. A trade mark is a visual symbol in the form of a word, a device or a label applied to
an article of manufacture to indicate the origin of the manufacture and distinguish it from the goods manufactured
by others in the trade. A design is an idea or conception regarding the shape, configuration; pattern or
ornamentation applied to an article. Copy right refers to the right to copy and make use of literary, dramatic, musical,
artistic works, cinematographic films, records, broadcast and computer programs software. Patent, trademark and
design come under intellectual Property. These forms of intellectual property along with copyright are referred to as
Intellectual Property Rights. History of Patents: Patents have been granted by Governments from the medieval ages.
Galileo was granted a patent for an irrigation device in 1594. The British system is credited to be oldest system of
granting patent that is still in operation. The first recorded patent was granted in 1617.
Patents as A Source of Information
Patent documents provide a unique and important source of technical information much of which may not be
available anywhere else. Their uniqueness is for the following reasons:
a) In most of the cases, patents are the earliest to disclose information about latest scientific, technological
development. It is a condition of the grant of patent that the invention claimed for patent must not have been
published earlier.
b) Information available in a patent specification, fully supported by necessary drawings and examples, is more
detailed and exhaustive than that available in any technical book or journal.
c) In some cases, patents are the only source of information. An application for a patent is filed as soon as an
invention having prima-facie utility is made. Its actual utility and usefulness becomes clear only after its commercial
exploitation.
d) Information regarding all invention in respect of any particular subject matter is available under one
classification heading because patents are published, grouped in classified order.
Sources of Patent Information
a) Official Sources
All member countries of the Paris Convention for Protection of Industrial Property (1983) (amended from time to
time) are required to produce an official journal giving details of granted patents and trade marks. These official
journals are usually published.
The Official Journal (1854 -) published at weekly interval by the British Patent Office, carries information on newly
granted patents in UK.
Official Gazette (1872 -) of the US Patent office, also published at weekly interval, is the American counter part to
The Official Journal.
Indian patents are published in Gazette oflndia, Part III, Sec. 2 every week. Indian Chemical Patents Index, 1988
(Nine, National Information Centre for Chemistry and Chemical Technology, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune
411007) covers current Indian patents in chemical sciences
b) Commercial Sources
Patent Throughout the World led. by Alan J. Jacobs. Ed.4 New York: Trade Activities.
A single volume loose leaf publication, kept up-to-date by publication of revised pages three times in a year.

6. Rimmer, Brenda M. International Guide to Official Industrial Property Publications. Ed.2/ revised by S. van Dulken.
London: The British Library.
World Directory of Sources of Patents. Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organisation, 1985.
Information Sources in Patents/ ed. by P. Anger. New Providence, N.J.: Bowker-Saur, 1992.
Patent Information and Documentation Handbook. Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organisation.
14) Explain briefly different the different kinds of information Services.
Types of Reference and Information Service: The emergence of the internet extends the reference
librarian's ability to provide diverse and complex services and potentiality to show their real professional
expertise to meet the demand put on them.
a) James I Wyer Theories: In considering the scope of reference services, James I Wyer proposed three
theories of reference service i.e conservative, moderate and liberal. Samuel Rothstein called them
minimum, middling, and maximum.
i) Conservative: It includes giving occasional personal assistance to the inexperienced and bewildered
reader. It limits the help to pointing the way only and so it is traditional in nature.
ii) Moderate: The moderate reference service goes beyond providing mere instruction to actually helping the
reader in using the book or finding the document and facts, etc.
ii) Liberal: It includes the provision of the full and direct supply of reliable information to the readers.
b) Edward B. Reeve’s Categories: Edward B. Reeve and others have categorized the activities of reference
staff into the following five categories on the basis of related functions.
i) Instructional Activities: These are characterized by explicit teaching function.
ii) Skill Maintenance Activities: These are related to up-dating the knowledge of reference tools.
iii) Patron Service Activities: This deals with providing information to the users of the reference service.
iv) Maintenance Activities: These are house keeping activities.
v) Surrogate Activities: These are those activities which the reference staff perform on behalf of the other
departments / sections of the library.
c) Dr. S. R. Ranganathan’s Classification: Dr. S. R. Ranganathan identified two aspects of reference work
- Ready reference service and Long range reference service.
i) Ready Reference Service: Most of the ready reference services are of the nature of fact finding types that
can be finished in a very short time – in a moment if possible. The librarian generally uses reference book
for providing such kind of services. The need of ready reference services arises from the fact of the
complex nature of a reference book, its artificiality, and arrangement of information. The eminent person,
foreign dignitaries or scholars generally approach for such type of services. Sometimes some regular
customers also need the fact finding reference service because of shortage of time on their part.
ii) Long Range Reference Service: The long range Reference Service is based on consulting every possible
source of information to arrive at the required information; as such, it is not possible to render this type of
service immediately. The time needed may range from half an hour to weeks. The search in the long range
reference service starts at the reference books and then goes to the ordinary books, pamphlets, reports,
articles in periodicals, etc. If the information is not available in the library then the search can even go to
other local libraries and occasionally to the other libraries in the country. The long range reference service
provided today can become the ready reference service tomorrow, as by this time the reference librarian
will be able to locate the material quickly from his past experience. Slowly, the scope of long range
reference service started expanding. Now bibliographical service, referral service, translation service, etc
are considered long range reference services.
d) American Library Association’s Categorization: In 1942, the American Library Association undertook
a series of library job analysis. This association has stated the following six functions of Reference Service
i) Supervision Function: This function consists of the proper organization of facilities, reference section,
selection of reference materials, direction of personnel, and study of the library clientele.

7. ii) Information Function: There should be an Information Desk where enquiries are received and routed to
proper section. The Reference Librarians should be prepared to answer all types of questions and should be
able to produce the sources that would answer the questions.
iii) Guidance Function: The Reference librarian should be able to recommend a good book for respective
fields. He should be able to give guidance to the readers regarding higher education, career related
information or profession or vocation. He can also give guidance to the readers in the location of the
document, in the choice of books and other reading materials.
iv) Instruction Function: The Reference librarian should instruct the readers about the working of the
library, the location of the material, the use of the catalogue card, the reference book, etc. An initiation or
orientation programme should be arranged to familiarize the readers with the library practices and
procedures.
v) Bibliographic Function: There should be a preparation of bibliographies of interest to the readers so that
they are able to know about the books and other reading materials required for their respective subjects.
vi) Appraisal Function: The libraries should possess the right kind of materials and reference collections
and the staff should be able to get the most out of it.
15) Write a detailed note on Community Information Services.
Community information service (CIS)
According the Library Association's Working Party ^ CIS means that which assists individual and groups
with daily problem solving and with participation in the democratic process. The services concentrate on
the needs of those who do not have ready access to other sources of assistance on the most important
problems that people have to face, problems to do with their homes, their jobs and their rights. There are
other two popular concepts remain in the same terminological plane with CIS. These are 'Public
Information Work' and 'Local Information Service
While designing any community information system one should consider the following elements;
Socio -economic background, Educational background, Informatin seeking behaviour , Knowledge of ICT
among community, Role of community agents , Information needs of community and Initiation by
government and NGOs.
The essential needs of CIS are;
Good library building , Qualified staff (Librarian), ICT facility: Computer, Printer, Scanner,
Telephone Internet connectivity/modem and Television/Fax.
Problems in accessing community information services for rural community
The major problems/obstacles faced by the rural community in accessing community information services
are as follows:
1. Rural population has difficulty in getting important information in a timely fashion and an appropriate
format eg department publications, policies, programs etc.
2. Most information disseminated to rural communities is in written form. It is difficult to access by those
with low, or no literacy skills.
3. Rural communities and organizations have difficulty in sharing information and experience among
themselves beyond face-to-face contact.
4. Field workers have little information about the population and poor access to up to date information from
the departments.
5. Government officials make plans and decisions on the basis of inadequate information and have
inadequate financial control and monitoring capabilities.

8. The major solution for the problem is listed below;
 Need for community libraries to provide for the required supplementary information.
 Community information can be provided from within a library or from a separate centre.
 Organize nationwide high profile literacy campaign about CIS
 Resource-sharing and self-help are key policies
 It is thus necessary to reorient information services
 The level and complexity of the language used in community information service, both in oral and
graphic encounters need to be simple and clear.
A Model of Integrated Community Information System (ICIS) - Earlier an attempt was made to
integrate different library operations under integrated library system. According to Saffady ^° it is an
interrelated group of computer programs that automates multiple library operations. Further Cibbarelli ^'
refers to the provision of integrated online access to the library catalogue and cataloguing, circulation,
acquisitions and serial management functions. Whereas Borgman ^^ defines it as an enhanced facilities for
identifying, locating and obtaining documents; bibliographic data exchange and integrating local
collections with other types of information resources. But in the 21*' century integrating community
information services is a new challenge for information professionals.
16) OED.
The Oxford Dictionary of English (ODE) is a single-volume English dictionary published by Oxford
University Press, first published in 1998 as The New Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE). The word
"new" was dropped from the title with the Second Edition in 2003.[1]
This dictionary is not based on
the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and should not be mistaken for a new or updated version of the
OED. It is a completely new dictionary which strives to represent as faithfully as possible the current usage
of English words. The Revised Second Edition contains 355,000 words, phrases, and definitions, including
biographical references and thousands of encyclopaedic entries. The Third Edition was published in
August 2010, with some new words, including "vuvuzela".
It is currently the largest single-volume English-language dictionary published by Oxford University Press
17) Bibliographical Source.
Bibliographies constitute an important source of information for research scholars and other users of libraries.
Generally speaking a bibliography is a list of books on a particular topic or subject prepared for the reference of a
particular library user. Bowers (1949) refers to bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in “specific
collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production. Basic bibliographic
information includes title, author or editor, publisher, and the year the current edition was published or copyrighted.
Bibliography, also known as works cited, reference list is basically an orderly study and referencing of books and
source materials used in academic research.
A bibliography is also a list of books, articles, and other sources which a scholar uses when researching a topic and
writing a paper. The bibliography appears at the end of research paper and is also called Works Cited or Works
Consulted.
Need for Bibliographies - The need of bibliography is to organize information about materials on a given subject so
that students of the subject may have access to it. A descriptive bibliography may take the form of information about
a particular author's works or about works on a given subject or on a particular nation or period. Critical bibliography,
which emerged in the early 20th century, involves meticulous descriptions of the physical features of books, including
the paper, binding, printing, typography, and production processes used, to help establish such facts as printing dates
and authenticity. Thus a bibliography is a list of books or articles related by way of authorship or subject, and
sometimes annotated. Large bibliographies may be published as books in their own right.

9. Bibliographies Importance - A bibliography is an important source of information for a research scholar. It serves as a
ready reference and directs him or her towards right kind of material which helps in research and studies. A
bibliography helps in organizing research material properly and saves the time of user. Preparing a bibliography is a
specialized job and requires some knowledge and understanding of the subject.
Kind of Bibliographies
a) Enumerative Bibliographies Enumerative bibliography is simply a lists of books, articles and other writings on a
given theme or subject, Bowers (1949) refers to enumerative bibliography as a procedure that identifies books in
“specific collections or libraries,” in a specific discipline, by an author, printer, or period of production. Enumerative
bibliography provides a list, rather than to describe minutely. Little or no information is likely to be provided about
physical aspects of the book such as paper, type, illustrations, or binding. A library's card catalog is an example of an
enumerative bibliography, and so is the list at the back of a book of works consulted
b) Analytical Bibliographies: The analytical bibliographies consider books as physical objects rather than as academic
contents and contain the details of their production, the effects of the method of manufacture on the text. Analytical
bibliography largely deals with the historical background of printers and booksellers, with the description of paper or
bindings, or with textual matters arising during the progression from writer's manuscript to published book.
c) Annotated Bibliography: An annotated bibliography contains an annotation of book or article in the form of an
abstract, note[s] intended to describe, explain, or evaluate the publication. This is a specialized kind bibliography for
special kind of users.
d) Current Bibliography: A current bibliography records recently published material, for the purpose of reporting the
recent literature in a particular subject like current list published by American Centre Library.
e) National Bibliography: A national bibliography of documents published in a particular country like Indian National
Bibliography.
f) Period Bibliography: A period bibliography lists works about a given time period.
g) Retrospective Bibliography: A retrospective bibliography can be described as a list of documents published in
previous years, as distinct from a current bibliography.
i) Serial Bibliography: A serial bibliography appears at fixed intervals of time, e.g. weekly, monthly, quarterly,
annually. Its objective is the reporting of publications as they appear.
j) Subject Bibliography: A subject bibliography provides details of publications on a given subject.
18) Universities Handbook – India
The 34th Edition of the Universities Handbook (2018) is a compendium which contains information of 532
Indian Universities and 09 Associate Member Universities. As Associate Members, the Handbook
contains information on Asian University for Women, Bangladesh; Kathmandu University, Nepal; Lincoln
College University, Malaysia; University of Mauritius, Mauritius; Middle East University, United Arab
Emirates; Royal University of Bhutan, Bhutan; Semey State Medical University, Kazakhstan; UCSI
University, Kualalampur, Malaysia; University of Technology, Mauritius.
The Handbook gives information relating to :
 Courses of Studies;
 Minimum Requirements for admission to each course;
 Duration and the subjects of study for each course;
 Library and Research Facilities;
 Scholarship and Fellowships; Academic year – date for admission and the approximate dates of
examinations;
 Names of Faculties; Deans of Faculties, Names of Professors and Readers/Associate Professors with
their specialization (department-wise);
 Staff, Officers and Name of Affiliated Constituent Colleges, Heads of Postgraduate Departments in the
Colleges, etc.

10.  The Handbook also includes a synopsis of the higher education system of the country and information
on the structure of higher education, the categories of academic institutions, the coordinating bodies
operating in the domain of higher education and other related issues.
19) Indexing Service.
New research findings, original ideas, inventions, innovations, etc. are being reported in various types of
documents, numbering millions and emanating from all over the world in scores of languages. It has been
observed that original scientific literature is emanating from more than 130 countries of the world in 66
languages. If we take the entire original literature embracing science and technology, social sciences, arts
and humanities, then the number of countries and languages will definitely go up along with the volume of
literature. The total output of such literature is estimated to be several millions per year. All those
documents harbouring this huge output of literature are, as you know, primary sources of information. A
reader may have direct access to a few of them but not all. A researcher likes to know about all the
documents dealing with his/ her narrow field of research. For this some aids are essential. Abstracting and
indexing services are the aids that help researchers, bibliographers and others to ferret out required
information from the incredibly huge jungle of literature. With the advent of computerised databases, the
search has become easy and much less time consuming. However, our scientists find the cost of the search
quite high compared to the cost of manual searches. A/I services are presently available in electronic forms
as well as printed form. In electronic forms, these are available either online or off-line. Offline electronic
form is CD-ROM based that gives freedom from bulky printed volumes. Online services are presently
available in Internet, and other online access modes have lost its relevance.
20) Techniques of users study
method of grouping users is on the basis of their approach to information. They can be classified as :
 the potential user – one who needs information which can be provided by specific services;
 the expected user – one who is known to have the intention of using certain information
services;
 the actual user – one who has actually used an information service regardless of the fact
whether he derived advantage from such a service or not; and
 the beneficiary user – one who derives a measurable advantage from information services.
User Characteristics
Since the main purpose of any user study is to gather information that is useful in design, provision and
evaluation of specific information products or services geared to specific users, it becomes necessary to
have full understanding of the user characteristics.
User characteristics may be studied under the following mention groups: i) individual characteristics, ii)
stages in the information diffusion, iii) environmental or social characteristics, and iv) communication
characteristics.
Individual Characteristics The individual characteristics of users deal with (a) their perception of the
problem and their definition of the problem faced along with their description of the needed information
(b) the specific ways in which they are most likely to use information and their capacity to use a particular
type of information.
Stages in the Information Diffusion This aspect relates to the amount of knowledge an individual (or a
group of users) has about a specific idea or innovation. Information needs at various stages are different
and therefore information products and services have to be tailored for each stage. This might be possible
only when the capabilities of the user are clearly perceived.
Environmental or Social Characteristics The factors in the social system (such as the norms, situation,
reference groups, etc.) that have an important effect on the individual’s behaviour and communication fall

11. under the category of environmental or social characters pertaining to an individual (or group) of user.
Awareness about these factors enables the system designer to precisely gauze the information requirements
of the user.
Communication Characteristics The elements related to the use and diffusion of information constitute
what are known as communication characteristics. Some of these include information sources, information
structures, communication channels and information systems. These aspects need to be correlated with
other characteristics. A proper and systematic user study aims at collecting all the pertinent data
concerning the users with the objective of building an efficient information system. Such data enables
establishment of close relationship between users and the information system designers.
Methodologies/Techniques for User Studies - After the need for conducting user studies has been
established and the relevant aspects (variables) to be studied are decided, the next logical step would be
selection of methods for conducting a user study
a) General or Conventional Methods
i) questionnaire ii) interview iii) diary iv) observation by self v) operations research study
b) Indirect Methods in the Context of Information Use
i) analysis of library records ii) citation analysis c) Special and Unconventional Methods i) computer-
feedback ii) unconventional methods.
Similarly, there are a number of methods available for data collection. Some of the commonly used methods
are:
Surveying: This involves questioning users and obtaining answers directly from users about their behaviour,
attributes, values, conditions and/or preferences. This is by far the most frequently used method in user
studies. It at times also leads to somewhat biased results.
Observation: It involves making direct observations on the communication behaviour of users in given
situations, practices, time periods, etc.
Records analysis: This method involves obtaining written records or other transcripts of previous
communications (such as papers, correspondence, statistics) and deriving inferences about users based on
the records.
Experimentation: This method involves introduction of an element in a defined group of users and
observing the results or consequences, possibly also comparing the group with another where the element
was not introduced.
Statistical analysis which comprises application of standard statistical techniques to summarise, compare
and test for significant data which is expressed numerically.
Semantic analysis involves application of semantic techniques to summarise and compare data which is
expressed verbally.
Psycho-social analysis which involves application of psychological, sociological or anthropological
techniques to classify or describe the data obtained through a user study, which is represented
conceptually, logically or representatively.
Economic analysis which comprises application of macro or micro economic techniques to derive
conclusions in economic terms on data expressed in all the above mentioned ways.