OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.pptx
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The document discusses oxidative phosphorylation, which is the final step in cellular respiration that occurs in the mitochondria. It involves an electron transport chain where electrons are transferred from NADH or FADH2 through a series of redox reactions. This powers the pumping of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. ATP synthase then uses this proton gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP, in a process known as chemiosmosis. The electron transport chain releases energy gradually to power this coupled synthesis of ATP.
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ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
Oxidative phosphorylation
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Atp synthase
ATP synthase—also called FoF1 ATPase is the universal protein that terminates oxidative phosphorylation by synthesizing ATP from ADP and phosphate.
ATP Synthase is one of the most important enzymes found in the mitochondria of cells
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Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation are the two main mechanisms by which organisms generate ATP. In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are passed through an electron transport chain in mitochondria to reduce oxygen to water, pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The resulting proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. Photophosphorylation uses sunlight to drive electron transport and proton pumping across thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts to similarly synthesize ATP. Both mechanisms conserve the energy of electron transport as a proton gradient that is then used to power ATP synthesis, demonstrating the fundamental similarity between these critical energy conversion processes.
Co-enzyme
Coenzymes are non-protein organic molecules that are associated with and help enzymes function. Coenzymes undergo alterations during enzymatic reactions and are later regenerated, unlike substrates which are converted to products. They participate in reactions involving the transfer of atoms or groups like hydrogen, and play a decisive role in enzyme function. Coenzymes can be classified into three main types: those derived from B vitamins, non-vitamin coenzymes like ATP, and nucleotide coenzymes containing nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates like NAD+ and FAD. The specificity of an enzyme depends more on the apoenzyme than on the coenzyme.
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This document summarizes ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. It describes how electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts establish proton gradients across membranes, which are then used by ATP synthase complexes to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Specifically, it outlines how electrons from NADH/FADH2 or water power proton pumping via complex I-IV in mitochondria or photosystems I and II in chloroplasts. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis when protons flow back through the ATP synthase.
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ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
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Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation are the two main mechanisms by which organisms generate ATP. In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are passed through an electron transport chain in mitochondria to reduce oxygen to water, pumping protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The resulting proton gradient is used by ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP to ATP. Photophosphorylation uses sunlight to drive electron transport and proton pumping across thylakoid membranes in chloroplasts to similarly synthesize ATP. Both mechanisms conserve the energy of electron transport as a proton gradient that is then used to power ATP synthesis, demonstrating the fundamental similarity between these critical energy conversion processes.
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This document summarizes ATP synthesis via oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation. It describes how electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts establish proton gradients across membranes, which are then used by ATP synthase complexes to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP. Specifically, it outlines how electrons from NADH/FADH2 or water power proton pumping via complex I-IV in mitochondria or photosystems I and II in chloroplasts. The resulting proton gradient drives ATP synthesis when protons flow back through the ATP synthase.
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TRANSLATION.pptx
Protein synthesis involves the translation of mRNA sequences into amino acid chains. Ribosomes in the cytoplasm or ER catalyze this process using three binding sites to join amino acids specified by the mRNA codons. Amino acids are activated and attached to specific tRNAs before delivery to the ribosome by elongation factors. Initiation, elongation through peptide bond formation, and termination result in the full protein chain.
TCA CYCLE (KREBS).pptx
The document summarizes the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle. It describes the cycle as a series of reactions that occur in mitochondria resulting in the oxidation of acetyl CoA to produce carbon dioxide, hydrogen atoms, and high-energy electron carriers. The cycle contains 8 enzyme-mediated steps that ultimately generate 3 NADH molecules, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP/ATP, and 2 CO2 per turn of the cycle. The cycle plays a key role in aerobic respiration by generating electron carriers that feed into the electron transport chain to produce ATP.
Structure of amino acids.pptx
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 standard amino acids that make up proteins, as well as some modified and non-protein amino acids. Amino acids contain an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain that differs between each type. They can be classified based on properties of their side chains, such as being polar, nonpolar, or aromatic. Nutritionists also classify amino acids as either essential or non-essential depending on whether humans can synthesize them.
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION IN PROKARYOTES.pptx
Prokaryotes regulate gene expression through several mechanisms. Operons allow for coordinated expression of multiple genes. Regulation occurs via induction when an inducer stimulates transcription, or repression when a corepressor inhibits transcription. Other mechanisms include positive control, catabolite repression, and attenuation based on translation rates of the transcript. These regulatory mechanisms allow prokaryotes to efficiently obtain or conserve energy depending on nutrient availability.
PROPERTIES OF AMINOACIDS.pptx
Amino acids are colorless, crystalline solids that have high melting points above 200 degrees Celsius. They are soluble in water and slightly soluble in alcohols. Amino acids are optically active and can form peptide bonds between their amino and carboxyl groups. They have zwitterionic and amphoteric properties due to possessing both amine and carboxylic acid functional groups. Common tests to identify amino acids include the ninhydrin, xanthoproteic, and reactions with reagents like nitrous acid or Sanger's reagent. The 20 standard amino acids are essential for building proteins and sustaining human health through roles like hormone production, muscle structure, and organ function.
POST TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS.pptx
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) refer to any alterations made to proteins after their initial synthesis, such as modification of amino acid side chains. PTMs influence protein structure, stability, activity, and more. Common PTMs include phosphorylation, glycosylation, methylation, and hydroxylation. PTMs are important for proper protein folding, conferring stability, and regulating protein activity and function. They increase proteome diversity and complexity.
POST TRANSCRIPTIONAL MODOFICATION.pptx
The document summarizes post-transcriptional modifications of RNA in eukaryotes. It describes how the primary transcript (hnRNA) undergoes processing to form mature mRNA through the addition of a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail and splicing of introns. The 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail protect the mRNA from degradation. Splicing involves removing introns and joining exons, facilitated by interactions with small nuclear ribonucleoproteins and other proteins to form the spliceosome complex. This results in mRNA containing only the coding exons that can then be translated into protein.
PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY.pptx
The pentose phosphate pathway is a metabolic pathway parallel to glycolysis that generates NADPH and pentoses. It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of liver and red blood cells. Glucose-6-phosphate enters the pathway and undergoes oxidative and non-oxidative reactions. The oxidative reactions produce NADPH, while the non-oxidative reactions produce pentoses and glycolytic intermediates. The overall reaction generates NADPH, CO2, and pentoses from glucose, with NADPH used for lipid and nucleotide biosynthesis and antioxidant defenses.
PROKAYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION.pptx
Transcription in prokaryotes involves RNA polymerase copying a portion of the DNA genome into RNA. It occurs in three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation begins with RNA polymerase binding to promoter sequences on DNA to form a closed complex, then an open complex. Elongation entails RNA polymerase continuing to synthesize RNA down the DNA template. Termination can occur via either rho-independent or rho-dependent mechanisms, stopping further RNA production.
EUKARYOTIC TRANSCRIPTION.pptx
Eukaryotic transcription involves RNA polymerase enzymes transcribing DNA into RNA. It occurs within the nucleus and involves three main steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. Initiation is more complex in eukaryotes and involves recruitment of transcription factors to promoter regions. Elongation utilizes RNA polymerase to synthesize RNA using DNA as a template. Termination does not rely on stem-loop structures as in prokaryotes. The primary transcript then undergoes processing before becoming a mature, functional RNA molecule.
Rna
This document discusses the key differences between RNA and DNA. It notes that RNA contains ribose sugar rather than deoxyribose, contains uracil rather than thymine, and is typically single-stranded. It describes the three main types of RNA - rRNA, tRNA, and mRNA - and their functions in protein synthesis, with rRNA in ribosomes, tRNA transferring amino acids, and mRNA carrying DNA's genetic code to the cytoplasm. The document provides details on the structure and role of each RNA type.
Dna
DNA carries genetic instructions in all living things. It is a double-stranded molecule shaped like a twisted ladder. Each strand has a backbone made of sugar and phosphate, with nitrogen bases (A, T, C, G) forming rungs between the strands via hydrogen bonding. The structure was discovered in 1953 by Watson and Crick. DNA is found in the cell nucleus and mitochondria, where it stores and transmits hereditary information from parents to offspring that directs protein synthesis and cell functions.
Genome organization of prokaryotes and eukaryotes
1. Prokaryotic genetic material is usually a single, circular chromosome located in the nucleoid region. Eukaryotic genetic material is contained within the nucleus in the form of linear chromosomes composed of DNA and proteins.
2. Chromosomes contain genes and vary in number between species. Eukaryotic chromosomes are packaged with histone proteins into chromatin and can exist in condensed or uncondensed states.
3. Genetic material exists in different structural and functional states between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are biomolecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer units present. Monosaccharides include simple sugars like glucose and fructose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic bond, examples being sucrose and lactose. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides and include starch, glycogen, and cellulose. Carbohydrates serve important functions as energy sources, structural components of cells and organisms, and precursors for other biomolecules.
Classification of microorganisms
This document classifies and describes different types of microorganisms including viruses, protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and algae. It provides information on their size, structure, habits, nutrition, and methods of reproduction. Viruses are the smallest and can only replicate inside host cells. Protozoa are unicellular organisms that live in bodies of living things and damp environments. Bacteria come in various shapes and sizes from 0.2 to 10 micrometers and reproduce through binary fission or conjugation. Fungi can be unicellular or multicellular, feed by absorbing nutrients, and reproduce sexually or asexually. Algae are mostly aquatic, photosynthetic, and range in size from 1 micro
Fluoresence microscope
The fluorescence microscope uses fluorescence and phosphorescence instead of, or in addition to, reflection and absorption to study organic or inorganic substances. It works by illuminating a specimen with specific excitation wavelengths that are absorbed by fluorophores, causing them to emit light of longer wavelengths. Key parts include light sources, excitation and emission filters, and a dichroic mirror. Fluorescence microscopy is widely used in biology for applications like imaging cell structures, viability studies, and viewing genetic material. It has advantages like sensitivity and the ability to track multiple molecules simultaneously, but limitations include photobleaching and phototoxicity over long exposures.
Microbial flora of soil
This document discusses the microbial flora of soil. It defines soil microflora as microorganisms that contribute to the biological properties of soil, including bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The five major groups interact and form a soil food web, with bacteria and fungi serving important roles in decomposition. Physical and chemical factors like pH and nutrients influence the growth and activity of soil microflora. The microflora are then classified and examples are given of bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and their functions in the soil ecosystem.
Interactions between microorganisms and Mutualism
Microbial interactions include mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, competition, and predation. Mutualism is a positive interaction that benefits both species. There are different types of mutualism including obligate, where species depend on the interaction for survival, and facultative, where species benefit but can live independently. Examples of mutualism include lichens, where algae and fungi interact obligately, and honeybees and flowering plants, which interact facultatively. Microbial interactions are important for ecosystem function and evolution.
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Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptx
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
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Deep Software Variability and Frictionless ReproducibilityUniversity of Rennes, INSA Rennes, Inria/IRISA, CNRS
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
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Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
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s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
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When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
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Cytokines and their role in immune regulation.pptx
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The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically young
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
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on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
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ANAMOLOUS SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS.pptx
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mô tả các thí nghiệm về đánh giá tác động dòng khí hóa sau đốt
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.pptx
- 1. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION Dr. P. Suganya Assistant professor Sri Kaliswari College (Autonomous)
- 2. Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of ATP formation, when electrons are transferred by electron carriers from NADH or FADH2 to oxygen”
- 4. • Oxidative phosphorylation is the final step in cellular respiration. It occurs in the mitochondria. It is linked to a process known as electron transport chain. The electron transport system is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The electrons are transferred from one member of the transport chain to another through a series of redox reactions.
- 5. • Oxidative Phosphorylation Steps • The major steps of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria include: • Delivery of Electrons by NADH and FADH2 • Reduced NADH and FADH2 transfer their electrons to molecules near the beginning of the transport chain. After transferring the electrons, they get oxidised to NAD+ and FAD and are utilised in other steps of cellular respiration.
- 6. • Electron Transport and Proton Pumping • The electrons move from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, thereby releasing energy. Some of the energy is used to move the electrons from the matrix to the intermembrane space. Thus, an electrochemical gradient is established. • Splitting of Oxygen to form Water • The electrons are then transferred to the oxygen molecule which splits into half and uptakes H+ to form water. • ATP Synthesis • The H+ ions pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase while flowing back into the matrix. This controls the flow of protons to synthesize ATP.
- 7. Chemiosmosis • Oxidative phosphorylation uses the chemical reactions that release energy to drive a chemical reaction that requires energy. These 2 sets of reactions are coupled and interrelated. • The electrons that flow through electron transport chain is an exergonic process and the synthesis of ATP is an endergonic process. These two processes are ingrained within a membrane. As a result, energy will be transmitted from the electron transport chain to ATP synthase by the movement of proteins. This process is termed as chemiosmosis. • Endergonic Process is a chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed. There will be a change in free energy and it is always positive. Exergonic Process is a chemical reaction in which there will be a positive flow of energy from the system to the surrounding environment. Chemical reactions are also considered exergonic when they are spontaneous.
- 8. Electron Transport Chain • Most of the biochemical catabolic processes like the citric acid cycle, glycolysis, beta-oxidation, etc. produce the coenzyme NADH. It consists of electrons having high transfer potential. • These reactions release a huge amount of energy on oxidation. These reactions are also known to be the uncontrollable reactions since the energy within the cells is not released at once.
- 9. • The electrons are separated from the NADH and then passed to the oxygen with a series of enzymes releasing a small amount of energy. All these series of enzymes having complexes is known as electron transport chain. • This chain can be seen in the inner layer or membrane of mitochondria. The salts of succinic acid are also oxidized by this electron chain transport system.
- 10. • In the case of eukaryotes, the enzymes make use of energy that has been released in the electron transport system from the oxidation of NADH that pumps protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondria. This results in the generation of the electrochemical gradient across the membrane. This can be considered as one of the best examples to understand the concept of oxidative phosphorylation.