The nucleic acids are vital biopolymers found in all living organisms, where they function to encode, transfer, and express genes. The nucleic acids are of two types, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
DNA and RNA molecules are linear polymers built from individual units called nucleotides connected by bonds called phosphodiester linkages. DNA and RNA are used to store and pass genetic information from one generation to the next.
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
DNA and RNA molecules are linear polymers built from individual units called nucleotides connected by bonds called phosphodiester linkages. DNA and RNA are used to store and pass genetic information from one generation to the next.
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
RNA- A polymer of ribonucleotides, is a single stranded structure. There are three major types of RNA- m RNA,t RNA and r RNA. Besides that there are small nuclear,micro RNAs, small interfering and heterogeneous RNAs. Each of them has a specific structure and performs a specific function.
The presentation covers the details of DNA replication starting from the basics of the replication process to the chemistry of DNA synthesis as well as the different models of replication.
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promote polymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA gene transcription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OF TRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL AND ENERGETIC DETAILS
Nucleic acid and its chemistry, dna as genetic materialdeepa sundari
The nucleic acids are vital biopolymers found in all living organisms, where they function to encode, transfer, and express genes. The nucleic acids are of two types, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA).
EVER WONDERED WHY DNA IS GENETIC MATERIAL INSTEAD OF RNA OR PROTEIN?
RNA- A polymer of ribonucleotides, is a single stranded structure. There are three major types of RNA- m RNA,t RNA and r RNA. Besides that there are small nuclear,micro RNAs, small interfering and heterogeneous RNAs. Each of them has a specific structure and performs a specific function.
The presentation covers the details of DNA replication starting from the basics of the replication process to the chemistry of DNA synthesis as well as the different models of replication.
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promote polymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA gene transcription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OF TRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL AND ENERGETIC DETAILS
Nucleic acid and its chemistry, dna as genetic materialdeepa sundari
The nucleic acids are vital biopolymers found in all living organisms, where they function to encode, transfer, and express genes. The nucleic acids are of two types, namely deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA).
EVER WONDERED WHY DNA IS GENETIC MATERIAL INSTEAD OF RNA OR PROTEIN?
Both RNA and DNA are made of nucleotides and take similar shapes. Both contain five-carbon sugars, phosphate groups, and nucleobases (nitrogenous bases). They both play important roles in protein synthesis. DNA has the five-carbon sugar deoxyribose and RNA has the five-carbon sugar ribose, hence their names
DNA & RNA the basic bio molecules of heredity are very complex molecules with definite structure and functions. Few of the basic structures and functions are described in the presentation.
Genetic material
Anant Mohan Sharma
All cell have the capability to give rise to the cell and
the encoded information in living cell is passed from
one generation to another. The information encoded
material is the genetic material or hereditary material
of the cell.
The genetic material is long sequence of nucleic
acids that contain the genetic instruction. Nucleic
acid are macromolecules in the form of DNA or
RNA.
Experimental evidences
Griffith’s experiment
Avery, MacLeod &McCarty experiment
Hershey & Chase experiment
RNA as genetic material
DNA structure
Z- DNA
V. Sasisekharan RL model
Types of RNA
A computer consists of four major parts: the input, output, CPU (central processing unit), and memory. Input consists of anything you will add into the computer (microphone, keyboard, mouse, scanner), and output is how the computer gives back to you (think screen, speakers, etc.). The CPU or central processing unit is located on the motherboard and is the part of the computer where all that input/output information gets sent to the proper place. Memory, commonly referred to as RAM (random access memory), as you may already know, is where the information is stored.
CONTENTS
Data representation in computers
Computer memory and Storage
Input and Output media
Current trends in computer
PRESENT STATUS AND FUTURE STRATEGIES IN COLLECTION OF MAJOR CROPS OF COTTON, ...Dhanuja Kumar
Cotton has played a great role in the global and Indian economies since immemorial time. The antiquity of cotton in the Indian subcontinent has been traced to the 4th millennium BC.
The wild species of Gossypium are important sources of useful traits such as special and superior fibre properties, cytoplasmic male sterility, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses etc. which can be introgressed into the cultivated species for improvement. Since the variability available in cultivated germplasm is limited and has been exhaustively utilized in breeding programmes, it has become a necessity to collect, conserve and develop basic germplasm materials enriched with rare useful genes.
Conservation is very important in mango, because many species are becoming extinct and many others are threatened and endangered.
Heat stress as well as other stresses can trigger some mechanisms of defense such as the obvious gene expression that was not expressed under “normal” conditions.
The sudden changes in genotypic expression resulting in an increase in the synthesis of protein groups. These groups are called “heat-shock proteins” (Hsps), “Stress-induced proteins” or “Stress proteins”
Stability parameters for comparing varieties (eberhart and russell 1966)Dhanuja Kumar
Phenotype is a result of genotype, environment and GE interaction. GENOTYPE- environment interactions are of major
importance to the plant breeder in developing
improved varieties. The performance of a single variety is not the same in all the environments. To identify a genotype whose performance is stable across environments various models were proposed. One such model was proposed by EBERHART and RUSSELL in 1966. Even after decades, this model is still preferred over others and used till date for stability analysis.
PREPARING CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS – MEASURING AND HANDLING SOLID CHEMICALS - MEASU...Dhanuja Kumar
Lab experiments and types of research often require preparation of chemical solutions. Preparations of these chemical solutions are done by weight (w/v) and by volume (v/v).
Breeding for nutritional quality in pulsesDhanuja Kumar
Legumes have been part of the human diet since the early ages of agriculture. Legumes are consumed in many forms: seedling and young leaves are eaten in salads, fresh immature pods and seeds provide a green vegetable, and dry seeds are cooked in various dishes. Legume seeds provide an exceptionally varied nutrient profile, including proteins, fibres, vitamins and minerals.
Breeding for nutritional quality entails an improvement primarily in protein quantity and quality which are of paramount significance.
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF BREEDING FOR NUTRITIONAL QUALITY
• Negative correlation between yield and protein content.
• Negative correlation between protein and sulphur containing amino acids
• Lack of proper field screening technique.
Terminator gene technology refers to plants that have been genetically modified to render sterile seeds at harvest.
Genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs) are the name given to experimental methods, described in a series of recent patent applications and providing specific genetic switch mechanisms that restrict the unauthorized use of genetic material (FAO, 2001a) by hampering reproduction (variety-specific V-GURT) or the expression of a trait (trait-specific T-GURT) in a genetically modified (GM) plant.
Breeding rice for sustainable agricultureDhanuja Kumar
Rice is the major cereal crop in Asia where 90% of the world’s rice is produced and consumed. Rice production and productivity need to keep pace with a growing global population likely to reach 9 billion by 2050 in order to have a hunger-free world and to ensure sustainable production in the face of depleting resources such as land, water and nutrients as well as changing climatic conditions.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
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Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
2. The nucleic acids are vital biopolymers found in all living
organisms, where they function to encode, transfer, and
express genes. The nucleic acids are of two types, namely
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
HISTORY:
Friedric Miescher (1868) discovered an acidic substance
from pus cells and named it as Nuclein
Altman (1889) coined the term Nucleic acids
3.
4. NITROGEN BASES
Purines
Adenine, guanine
Dicyclic molecules
4 N atoms at 1,3,5,9
positions
Glycosidic bond formed
between 1 C of pentose
sugar and N (9) of purine
Pyrimidines
Cytosine, thymine, uracil
monocyclic molecules
2 N atoms at 1,3, positions
Glycosidic bond formed
between 1 C of pentose
sugar and N (1) of pyrimidine
5.
6. Pentose sugar:
Form glycosidic bond
RNA – Ribose sugar
DNA – Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphoric acid
Attached to 5 C of pentose
sugar by phospho diester
bond
7.
8. Minor bases
Several minor & unusual bases are often found in DNA &
RNA
These include 5-methylcytosine, N4-acetylcytosine, N6
methyl
adenine, N6 dimethyl adenine, dihydrouracil & N7
methylguanine
Importance:
The unusual bases in nucleic acids help in the recognition
of
specific enzymes.
9. DNA
Location : In eukaryotes it is present in both nucleus and
cytoplasm.
In prokaryotes it is found in cytoplasm.
Structure: Double stranded structure, however in some
viruses it is single stranded.
Shape : In eukaryotes, DNA is of linear shape. In
prokaryotes and mitochondria DNA is circular.
Replication: Semi-conservative manner.
Types : A , B, C, D and Z forms of DNA. (tropic and
genetic)
Functions: Stores and transforms genetic information
and involved in mRNA synthesis.
10. STRUCTURE OF DNA: Watson and Crick
proposed double helix structure in 1953 (term DNA -
Zacharis)
Features of DNA double helix structure:
• Double helix structure
• Each strand is made up of a chain of
nucleotides
• 2 strands run antiparallel to each other
• Purine always pairs with pyrimidine
• The diameter of the helix is 20Å. Pitch of the
helix is 34Å and 10bp in each turn. Adjacent
bases are separated by 3.4Å.
• The two chains are held together by hydrogen
bonds between the nitrogen bases. (A=T,
C=G)
11. Rosalind Franklin
- X-ray diffraction
Photo 51 analysis
X- helix
Diamonds - long extended
molecules
Smear spacing- distance
between repeating structures
12. CHARGAFF’S RULE
Purine=Pyrimidine.
A=T & G=C
A+G/C+T=1.
CG Rule: The overall G+C content is species specific, it
tends to be higher in exons than the introns
14. Which Came First?
RNA OR DNA
Most scientists believe RNA evolved before DNA. RNA has
a simpler structure and is needed in order for DNA to
function. Also, RNA is found in prokaryotes.
RNA on its own can act as a catalyst for certain chemical
reactions.
Why DNA evolved if RNA existed?
Having a double-stranded molecule helps protect the
genetic code from damage. If one strand is broken, the
other strand can serve as a template for repair.
15. RNA
A nucleic acid that carries the genetic message from DNA
to ribosomes and is involved in the process of protein
synthesis is referred to as RNA. It contains:
Ribose sugar
Nitrogen base (A, G, U, C)
Phosphoric acid
16. Heterogeneous RNA( hnRNA):
Precursor RNA synthesized from DNA through transcription.
Contains both exons and introns.
Messenger RNA( mRNA) :
It constitutes about 5% of total RNA in the cell.
Role: carries the information for the protein synthesis.
mRNA is formed after processing of hnRNA. Processed
through the process of capping (7-methyl guanosine is
added to the 5’ terminal end), tailing, splicing and base
modifications.
17. Transfer RNA (tRNA) ( soluble RNA or adapter molecules)
Smallest of all the 3 major RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA)
Role : transfers amino acids from cytoplasm to protein
synthesis machinery.
The first nucleic acid to be completely sequenced was
tRNA ( tRNA alanine), by HOLLEY and Co-workers.
Ribosomal RNA( rRNA) :
rRNA is synthesized in nucleolus.
Role : Plays an important role in binding of mRNA to
ribosome and its translation.
18. Functions of RNA:
Storage function:Many viruses have RNA as genetic
material, it may be ssRNA or dsRNA.
Structural RNA: rRNA is the major component of ribosome.
Transfer function: mRNA encodes for protein synthesis
involved in transfer of genetic information.
Catalytic function: RNA in ribosomes has peptidyl
transferase activity which is responsible for formation of
peptide bond between the amino acids. Ribozymes have
catalytic activity.
Regulatory function: siRNA, miRNA are involved in plant
defense mechanism.
19. Differences between DNA and RNA:
Particulars DNA RNA
Location Nucleus and cytoplasm Chromosomes and
ribosomes
Replication Self replication Self replication is rare
Types A,B and Z forms mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
Strands Usually two, rarely one Usually one , rarely two
Bases A,G,C and T A, G, C and U
Base pairing AT and GC AU and GC
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Size Upto 4.3 million
nucleotides
Upto 12000 nucleotides
Function Genetic role Protien synthesis.
Genetic in some viruses
20.
21. CHARACTERISTICS OF GENETIC
MATERIAL
Replication
Storage information for the expression of the trait
Control expression of traits
Change in controlled way (undergo mutation)
Must be stable
22. Is the Genetic Material Protein or DNA?
Untill 1940 Proteins were considered as genetic material
as proteins are polymer of 20 protein amino acids and
present in larger quantity, encode more and variety of
information.
DNA is polymer of only 4 different deoxyribonucleotides
(ATP, CTP, GTP & TTP) and is present in smaller quantity
23. Evidences which prove DNA as Genetic Material
Frederick Griffith’s (1928) experiment on Bacterial
Transformation
Oswald Avery, Colin Macleod and Maclyn McCarty’s
(1944) experiment on Transformation
Alfred D. Hershey and Martha Chase (1952 ) experiment
on T- Even (2,4 ) Bacteriophage
26. It was postulated that some of the cells of IIR had changed
into III S type due to the influence of he dead III S cells
present in the mixture
This phenomenon was called transformation
The components of the IIIS cells which induced the
conversion of II R cells into III S cells was named the
transforming principle
27. Avery, Macleod and Mc Carty (1944)
experiment on Transformation
Carried out the experiments of Griffith in vitro
They concluded that DNA was the genetic material and
not the proteins. Because the transformation occurred
when the DNA was present in the extract and there was no
transformation when DNA was digested with DNAse
enzyme
28.
29. Hershey and Chase (1952)
Universal acceptance of DNA as the genetic material
The studies of Hershey and Chase clearly showed that
DNA of T2 is transmitted from one generation to next, while
proteins are not transmitted
This led to the universal acceptance of DNA as the
genetic material
30.
31. Recent findings - Scientists Have Created
Synthetic DNA with 4 Extra Letters
"HACHIMOJI“
Much greater capacity to
store information.
P, B, Z and S.
Stable and predictable.
Hachimoji RNA
NO self sustainability
