This document summarizes research on multilingualism in Iran, specifically focusing on the status of the Azeri language in East Azerbaijan Province. It introduces the concepts of language unity and pluralism in language planning, noting that Iran follows a unity approach with Persian as the sole official and national language. The researcher analyzes data on Azeri language use in local media and publications in East Azerbaijan and concludes that despite the emphasis on Persian, Azeri has maintained its status and is not being marginalized, showing that Iran's language policy has taken a balanced approach between unity and pluralism.
I thanks go to Naeem, Sher Azam, Monica Gill, Syed Aziz and Samia Kausar at Quaid e Azam University, Islamabad. I have tried to acknowledge all sources and true to the original data as much as possible, however there are undoubtedly still corrections to be made. If anyone who reads this acknowledgements find a piece of data that needs correction, please notify me at ahdihassan441@gmail.com.
I thanks go to Naeem, Sher Azam, Monica Gill, Syed Aziz and Samia Kausar at Quaid e Azam University, Islamabad. I have tried to acknowledge all sources and true to the original data as much as possible, however there are undoubtedly still corrections to be made. If anyone who reads this acknowledgements find a piece of data that needs correction, please notify me at ahdihassan441@gmail.com.
The dominance of English language in Nigeria has led to the depletion in the use of indigenous languages in the country. This has generated the necessity of conducting a more sophisticated and in fact an exhaustive study of the number of existent and non-existent/extinct languages. The basic finding of this study is that the mother tongue is still the dominant language in use in the home domain in Nigeria. This scenario reveals a case of language maintenance in Nigeria for now. Indeed, this position may not be sustainable for long in view of the preference of Nigerian youths for English over the mother tongue. The reasons behind current maintenance may not be unconnected with the fact that Nigerians are thoroughly bilingual in the semi-exoglossic type. This type of bilingualism entails knowledge of English and the mother tongue of the individual involved. While this development signifies that Nigerians are simply not learning any other indigenous language in addition to theirs as stipulated in the constitution, the study is a pointer to the fact that the stage is now fully set for the establishment of a mother-tongue based bilingual education in English and the mother tongue to avert any eventuality owing to the fact that English in Nigeria today is used in practically all domains. The study is a clarion call on all stakeholders to wake-up to the reality of the scourge of language shift and language endangerment currently plaguing Africa including Nigeria and some other developing countries of the world.
This presentation answers some questions like: ''How are languages planned in multilingual countries?, What is the role of TDK in Turkish language reform?, What are the processes of Language Planning?'' Language planning in Switzerland, Canada, India and USA is mentioned in this presentation.
Language policy in India: A Voyage from Ancient India to Modern IndiaHathib KK
A comprehensive discussion on language policy in India- Language policy during Vedic Age-Language Policy during Budhist period-Language Policy during Islamict period-Language Policy during British period-Language Policy After Independence- Three Language formula-
The dominance of English language in Nigeria has led to the depletion in the use of indigenous languages in the country. This has generated the necessity of conducting a more sophisticated and in fact an exhaustive study of the number of existent and non-existent/extinct languages. The basic finding of this study is that the mother tongue is still the dominant language in use in the home domain in Nigeria. This scenario reveals a case of language maintenance in Nigeria for now. Indeed, this position may not be sustainable for long in view of the preference of Nigerian youths for English over the mother tongue. The reasons behind current maintenance may not be unconnected with the fact that Nigerians are thoroughly bilingual in the semi-exoglossic type. This type of bilingualism entails knowledge of English and the mother tongue of the individual involved. While this development signifies that Nigerians are simply not learning any other indigenous language in addition to theirs as stipulated in the constitution, the study is a pointer to the fact that the stage is now fully set for the establishment of a mother-tongue based bilingual education in English and the mother tongue to avert any eventuality owing to the fact that English in Nigeria today is used in practically all domains. The study is a clarion call on all stakeholders to wake-up to the reality of the scourge of language shift and language endangerment currently plaguing Africa including Nigeria and some other developing countries of the world.
This presentation answers some questions like: ''How are languages planned in multilingual countries?, What is the role of TDK in Turkish language reform?, What are the processes of Language Planning?'' Language planning in Switzerland, Canada, India and USA is mentioned in this presentation.
Language policy in India: A Voyage from Ancient India to Modern IndiaHathib KK
A comprehensive discussion on language policy in India- Language policy during Vedic Age-Language Policy during Budhist period-Language Policy during Islamict period-Language Policy during British period-Language Policy After Independence- Three Language formula-
القراء التحليلية لدؤلف: " قراءة ثانية لشعرنا القديم" د. مصطفى ناصف
الفصل الثامن: الحاجة إلى الخوف
الحاجة إلى الخوف اختيار من الناقد ليبرز من خلالو خوف الإنسان الجاىلي، وقلقو
India, as well-known to all, is the home of diversity; linguistic, cultural, religious, and social diversity. All these aspects are interwoven together making India a vibrant nation promoting the impeccable idea of "unity in diversity". As a multilingual nation, the study of language contact, where hundreds of different languages are in a constant negotiation, provides an appropriate zone for investigating the language interaction and the sociolinguistic consequences resulting from such process. This paper casts the light on the Kurukh’s contact with Hindi and Sadri, being the languages spoken in the area under scrutiny, tracing the sociolinguistic consequences of this interaction through studying a sample of these tribes residing in Mandar area. It also seeks to find out the sociolinguistic status quo of Kurukh and its status among its speakers through considering the contexts and situations in which both Hindi and Kurukh are used. It has been reported that Hindi, Sadri, and Kurukh are used exchangeably in a complementary distribution. Kurukh is spoken in some certain domains; at home, talking with friends of the same speech community, and in-group occasions when they come together to celebrate their religious festivals or any other social occasions whereas Hindi and Sadri are used for conversing with people of other speech communities or when they are in the presence of out-group people. On the other hand, the children receive their education in Hindi-medium schools and some of them in that of English-medium. In the school context, the students of Kurukh background avoid using their mother tongue even when they talk to each other lest to be mocked at or stigmatized by their friends and classmates who do not understand their language. This linguistic behavior of the young generation puts the Kurukh language at stake and jeopardizes the linguistic identity of its speakers as the time goes by.
A contrastive linguistic analysis of inflectional bound morphemes of English,...Bahram Kazemian
In order to contrast and compare inflectional bound morphemes of English, Azeri and Persian languages and to identify their similarities and dissimilarities, inventories of English, Azeri and Farsi inflections, i.e. their set of affixes, were gathered, studied, and elaborated with some examples, and with English meanings. Eventually, after comparison, the researchers ended up with a series of statements about similarities and differences between these languages. The design of the present study is comparative-analytic which concentrates on the comparison and contrasting inflections of English, Azeri and Persian languages. The data is analyzed and illustrated through the contrastive method.
Sociology of Language of Telugu Minorities in Tamil Naduijtsrd
This paper tries to unearth the sociology of language of five linguistic minorities whose mother tongue is Telugu and who live in southern region of Tamil Nadu. Their linguistic behavior is dominated by regional language Tamil which ultimately dominates in all respects. This leads to linguistic convergence, linguistic shift and eventually linguistic loss. The diminution of language use in peripheral and core domains of language use has been identified. Since this is a minority language many of the language oriented provisions are missing to minorities which are compensated by regional language. This stance has been proved with empirical evidences through this paper. Dr. T. Muthukrishnan "Sociology of Language of Telugu Minorities in Tamil Nadu" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-6 | Issue-5 , August 2022, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd50686.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/humanities-and-the-arts/other/50686/sociology-of-language-of-telugu-minorities-in-tamil-nadu/dr-t-muthukrishnan
AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND ISLAMIC STUDIES RESEARCH (AJHISR)
Vol.1, Issue 1, Jul-15 to Dec-15
Abstract:
Languages are tools that connect people globally and help them acquire knowledge. It is a highly critical decision to choose a language or a set of languages for inclusion in curriculum in a manner that would be most productive at personal, community and national level. What we need to see in our next generation has to be ‘sowed the seeds for’ today. Our study present an overview of choices related to languages inclusion in curriculum for Muslim children from the perspective of acquiring local languages, Arabic, English and other international languages. Findings suggest that learning this set comprising of 4 languages is already practiced in different cultures and institutions. However selection of languages to be included in mix needs be carefully considered. Paper also highlights factors that govern influence of a particular language globally or for communities and recommend a set of languages that can be adopted for curriculum with further research.
Non-Zulu speakers’ attitudes towards isiZulu at selected public and private...Premier Publishers
This study explores language attitudes of non-Zulu speakers’ towards isiZulu. A language attitude questionnaire was administered to 127 non-Zulu speakers in the study area. While the principal method of data collection was the questionnaire, semi-structured interviews were also used to collect data. The descriptive and inferential data elicited from the completed questionnaires as well participants’ responses from semi-structured interviews revealed that people are more likely to acquire a new language for instrumental rather than integrative reasons. This is because the economic rewards of learning a new language far outweigh the social rewards. Although the respondents have mixed views on the instrumental and integrative importance of isiZulu; there was general consensus that isiZulu has an important role in a multilingual society.
Program of 2nd International Symposium on Endangered Iranian Languages (ISEIL...Encyclopaedia Iranica
Organizers:
Saloumeh Gholami
Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität
Institut für Empirische Sprachwissenschaft
Frankfurt am Main
Pollet Samvelian
Université Sorbonne nouvelle
Paris
For more information, see: http://www.iseil.org/
GraphSummit Singapore | The Art of the Possible with Graph - Q2 2024Neo4j
Neha Bajwa, Vice President of Product Marketing, Neo4j
Join us as we explore breakthrough innovations enabled by interconnected data and AI. Discover firsthand how organizations use relationships in data to uncover contextual insights and solve our most pressing challenges – from optimizing supply chains, detecting fraud, and improving customer experiences to accelerating drug discoveries.
Enchancing adoption of Open Source Libraries. A case study on Albumentations.AIVladimir Iglovikov, Ph.D.
Presented by Vladimir Iglovikov:
- https://www.linkedin.com/in/iglovikov/
- https://x.com/viglovikov
- https://www.instagram.com/ternaus/
This presentation delves into the journey of Albumentations.ai, a highly successful open-source library for data augmentation.
Created out of a necessity for superior performance in Kaggle competitions, Albumentations has grown to become a widely used tool among data scientists and machine learning practitioners.
This case study covers various aspects, including:
People: The contributors and community that have supported Albumentations.
Metrics: The success indicators such as downloads, daily active users, GitHub stars, and financial contributions.
Challenges: The hurdles in monetizing open-source projects and measuring user engagement.
Development Practices: Best practices for creating, maintaining, and scaling open-source libraries, including code hygiene, CI/CD, and fast iteration.
Community Building: Strategies for making adoption easy, iterating quickly, and fostering a vibrant, engaged community.
Marketing: Both online and offline marketing tactics, focusing on real, impactful interactions and collaborations.
Mental Health: Maintaining balance and not feeling pressured by user demands.
Key insights include the importance of automation, making the adoption process seamless, and leveraging offline interactions for marketing. The presentation also emphasizes the need for continuous small improvements and building a friendly, inclusive community that contributes to the project's growth.
Vladimir Iglovikov brings his extensive experience as a Kaggle Grandmaster, ex-Staff ML Engineer at Lyft, sharing valuable lessons and practical advice for anyone looking to enhance the adoption of their open-source projects.
Explore more about Albumentations and join the community at:
GitHub: https://github.com/albumentations-team/albumentations
Website: https://albumentations.ai/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/100504475
Twitter: https://x.com/albumentations
Goodbye Windows 11: Make Way for Nitrux Linux 3.5.0!SOFTTECHHUB
As the digital landscape continually evolves, operating systems play a critical role in shaping user experiences and productivity. The launch of Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 marks a significant milestone, offering a robust alternative to traditional systems such as Windows 11. This article delves into the essence of Nitrux Linux 3.5.0, exploring its unique features, advantages, and how it stands as a compelling choice for both casual users and tech enthusiasts.
Why You Should Replace Windows 11 with Nitrux Linux 3.5.0 for enhanced perfor...SOFTTECHHUB
The choice of an operating system plays a pivotal role in shaping our computing experience. For decades, Microsoft's Windows has dominated the market, offering a familiar and widely adopted platform for personal and professional use. However, as technological advancements continue to push the boundaries of innovation, alternative operating systems have emerged, challenging the status quo and offering users a fresh perspective on computing.
One such alternative that has garnered significant attention and acclaim is Nitrux Linux 3.5.0, a sleek, powerful, and user-friendly Linux distribution that promises to redefine the way we interact with our devices. With its focus on performance, security, and customization, Nitrux Linux presents a compelling case for those seeking to break free from the constraints of proprietary software and embrace the freedom and flexibility of open-source computing.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of technologies, XML continues to play a vital role in structuring, storing, and transporting data across diverse systems. The recent advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) present new methodologies for enhancing XML development workflows, introducing efficiency, automation, and intelligent capabilities. This presentation will outline the scope and perspective of utilizing AI in XML development. The potential benefits and the possible pitfalls will be highlighted, providing a balanced view of the subject.
We will explore the capabilities of AI in understanding XML markup languages and autonomously creating structured XML content. Additionally, we will examine the capacity of AI to enrich plain text with appropriate XML markup. Practical examples and methodological guidelines will be provided to elucidate how AI can be effectively prompted to interpret and generate accurate XML markup.
Further emphasis will be placed on the role of AI in developing XSLT, or schemas such as XSD and Schematron. We will address the techniques and strategies adopted to create prompts for generating code, explaining code, or refactoring the code, and the results achieved.
The discussion will extend to how AI can be used to transform XML content. In particular, the focus will be on the use of AI XPath extension functions in XSLT, Schematron, Schematron Quick Fixes, or for XML content refactoring.
The presentation aims to deliver a comprehensive overview of AI usage in XML development, providing attendees with the necessary knowledge to make informed decisions. Whether you’re at the early stages of adopting AI or considering integrating it in advanced XML development, this presentation will cover all levels of expertise.
By highlighting the potential advantages and challenges of integrating AI with XML development tools and languages, the presentation seeks to inspire thoughtful conversation around the future of XML development. We’ll not only delve into the technical aspects of AI-powered XML development but also discuss practical implications and possible future directions.
Dr. Sean Tan, Head of Data Science, Changi Airport Group
Discover how Changi Airport Group (CAG) leverages graph technologies and generative AI to revolutionize their search capabilities. This session delves into the unique search needs of CAG’s diverse passengers and customers, showcasing how graph data structures enhance the accuracy and relevance of AI-generated search results, mitigating the risk of “hallucinations” and improving the overall customer journey.
Full-RAG: A modern architecture for hyper-personalizationZilliz
Mike Del Balso, CEO & Co-Founder at Tecton, presents "Full RAG," a novel approach to AI recommendation systems, aiming to push beyond the limitations of traditional models through a deep integration of contextual insights and real-time data, leveraging the Retrieval-Augmented Generation architecture. This talk will outline Full RAG's potential to significantly enhance personalization, address engineering challenges such as data management and model training, and introduce data enrichment with reranking as a key solution. Attendees will gain crucial insights into the importance of hyperpersonalization in AI, the capabilities of Full RAG for advanced personalization, and strategies for managing complex data integrations for deploying cutting-edge AI solutions.
Observability Concepts EVERY Developer Should Know -- DeveloperWeek Europe.pdfPaige Cruz
Monitoring and observability aren’t traditionally found in software curriculums and many of us cobble this knowledge together from whatever vendor or ecosystem we were first introduced to and whatever is a part of your current company’s observability stack.
While the dev and ops silo continues to crumble….many organizations still relegate monitoring & observability as the purview of ops, infra and SRE teams. This is a mistake - achieving a highly observable system requires collaboration up and down the stack.
I, a former op, would like to extend an invitation to all application developers to join the observability party will share these foundational concepts to build on:
How to Get CNIC Information System with Paksim Ga.pptxdanishmna97
Pakdata Cf is a groundbreaking system designed to streamline and facilitate access to CNIC information. This innovative platform leverages advanced technology to provide users with efficient and secure access to their CNIC details.
Climate Impact of Software Testing at Nordic Testing DaysKari Kakkonen
My slides at Nordic Testing Days 6.6.2024
Climate impact / sustainability of software testing discussed on the talk. ICT and testing must carry their part of global responsibility to help with the climat warming. We can minimize the carbon footprint but we can also have a carbon handprint, a positive impact on the climate. Quality characteristics can be added with sustainability, and then measured continuously. Test environments can be used less, and in smaller scale and on demand. Test techniques can be used in optimizing or minimizing number of tests. Test automation can be used to speed up testing.
Essentials of Automations: The Art of Triggers and Actions in FMESafe Software
In this second installment of our Essentials of Automations webinar series, we’ll explore the landscape of triggers and actions, guiding you through the nuances of authoring and adapting workspaces for seamless automations. Gain an understanding of the full spectrum of triggers and actions available in FME, empowering you to enhance your workspaces for efficient automation.
We’ll kick things off by showcasing the most commonly used event-based triggers, introducing you to various automation workflows like manual triggers, schedules, directory watchers, and more. Plus, see how these elements play out in real scenarios.
Whether you’re tweaking your current setup or building from the ground up, this session will arm you with the tools and insights needed to transform your FME usage into a powerhouse of productivity. Join us to discover effective strategies that simplify complex processes, enhancing your productivity and transforming your data management practices with FME. Let’s turn complexity into clarity and make your workspaces work wonders!
Maruthi Prithivirajan, Head of ASEAN & IN Solution Architecture, Neo4j
Get an inside look at the latest Neo4j innovations that enable relationship-driven intelligence at scale. Learn more about the newest cloud integrations and product enhancements that make Neo4j an essential choice for developers building apps with interconnected data and generative AI.
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !KatiaHIMEUR1
Today, after several years of existence, an extremely active community and an ultra-dynamic ecosystem, Kubernetes has established itself as the de facto standard in container orchestration. Thanks to a wide range of managed services, it has never been so easy to set up a ready-to-use Kubernetes cluster.
However, this ease of use means that the subject of security in Kubernetes is often left for later, or even neglected. This exposes companies to significant risks.
In this talk, I'll show you step-by-step how to secure your Kubernetes cluster for greater peace of mind and reliability.
Securing your Kubernetes cluster_ a step-by-step guide to success !
Multilingualism in iran
1. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences
ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2863 (Online)
Vol.3, No.18, 2013
www.iiste.org
Multilingualism in Iran; Unity or Pluralism?
(A case study in East Azerbaijan Province)
Esmaeil Safaei Asl
Department of linguistics, Allameh Tabataba'i University, Tehran, 1997967556, Iran
E-mail address: safai.atu@gmail.com
Abstract
In multilingual-multicultural Iran, from among existing languages, Persian language has, naturally and in the
long historical run, taken the position of both national and the sole official language. So, it can be argued that the
dominant language model in Iran is language unity based on the unity approach. In the present study, first the
approaches of unity and pluralism in language planning are introduced in relation to the position of
national/official languages and the amount of attention paid to local languages as well. Then a specific
framework is proposed to evaluate the multilingual country of Iran. The considered framework encompasses
factors such as the status of existing languages in the domains of radio, television and national/local publications.
In order to answer the basic question about the effect(s) of laying emphasis on Persian ,both as the sole official
and national language of Iran and as a determinant factor in national unity, on the status of Azeri as a nonofficial language in the country, the researcher referred to the well-documented resources related to East
Azerbaijan's local radio, television and publications and, having extracted the amount of time allocated to Azeri
language on local television and radio and the number of publications printed in Azeri, compared and evaluated
their related statistical data with those related to Persian language in the mentioned domains. On the basis of the
results obtained from the data analysis, it can be daringly claimed that language unity in Iran (at least in the case
of Azeri language) has taken its sound version and not only is it far from being in pursuit of marginalizing and
suppressing the local languages, but it has also helped them both maintain their status and enrich themselves day
by day. Persian language is arguably not considered as a rival to local languages (at least Azeri) and beside
Persian language introduced as the sole official language and the symbol of Iranian identity and national unity,
other ethnic (local) languages are given the chance to maintain their real status. Due to such a language policy,
rooted in justice-oriented policies of Islamic Republic of Iran, speakers of non-official languages in the country
may develop more positive attitudes to Persian language and do their best to maintain the status of Persian as a
determinant factor in the unification of all Iranians.
Keywords: multilingualism, language planning, official language, unity, pluralism
1. Introduction
Like bilingualism, multilingualism is both individual and societal. In individual multilingualism, an individual
equipped with more than two languages can enjoy the available languages in different situations. An interesting
example of individual multilingualism (as cited in Wardhaugh 1986: 95) can be found in the northwest Amazon,
on the border between Colombia and Brazil, where individual multilingualism is the natural outcome of an
interesting pattern of marriage; that is, no man may have a wife who speaks his language, for that kind of
marriage relationship would be viewed as a kind of incest. Along with the acquisition of parental languages, their
children learn other language(s) of the environment. As for the manifestation of individual multilingualism in
Iran, West Azerbaijan province, in the northwest Iran, can be exemplified where a remarkable number of people
speak Azeri, Kurdish, and Persian.
Unlike its individual form, societal multilingualism is a very widespread phenomenon. Societal multilingualism
which is the consequence of the existence and operation of more than two languages within borders of a society
is so prevalent in the world that following Spolsky (1998:51), monolingual countries and speech communities
are hard to find. Iran, having hosted various languages such as Persian, Azeri, Kurdish, Mazandarani, and
Baluchi, is among the multilingual countries in the world.
Determining the status of the languages in multilingual countries is a key issue in language planning.
2. Language Planning
Language planning refers to deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition,
structure, or functional allocation of their language codes (Cooper 1989:45).This definition encompasses the
three areas that are traditionally addressed in language planning, namely corpus, status, and acquisition (Kloss
1967; Prator as cited in Cooper 1989:33); 1) corpus planning focuses on language structures such as
morphological, syntactic, and semantic structures. 2.) status planning refers to the place and functions of a
language.3) acquisition planning concerns language spread.
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Corpus planning, according to Wardhaugh (1986 :336), is to provide a language (variety) with the means for
serving every possible language function in society. For Spolsky (1998:66), corpus planning is any effort to fix
or modify the structure of a language. Wardhaugh (ibid.) maintains that status planning changes the function of a
language (variety) and the rights of those who use it. In fact, through this kind of planning, a language may lose
or gain its status. Spolsky (1998:67-69) considers status planning as an important activity since the issues
concerning it continue to make headlines such as the riots in Soweto by African school children who were upset
by a government decision to have them learn in Afrikaans rather than English. Spolsky (ibid.) points out that
language status policy is by its very nature a political activity. Along with corpus and status planning, Spolsky
(1998:67) refers to language acquisition planning as a process which is involved when a government decides
which language is to be taught in school.
According to Milligan (2007), acquisition planning is an activity that focuses on transmission of a language to its
non-users and non-fluent users. Referring to the interconnectivity of the three areas of language planning,
Milligan maintains that the status of a language is influenced by both corpus and acquisition planning, with the
former having direct repercussions on aspects of status, and the latter altering the visibility of a language.
Acquiring a language, along with its side effect, i.e. contributing to the vitality of the language in question,
seems to necessitate the application of some required modifications in the structure of the language, which is
expected of corpus planners.
Interconnectivity of the three types of language planning in Iran can be assumed in terms of Persian language. As
went above, all non-Persian speaking Iranians in the country acquire Persian as it is the sole official and national
language of Iran. This issue bears a direct and immediate effect on maintaining Persian language in Iran. The
necessity of public acquisition of Persian, as well as its high status as a symbol of the Iranian identity, has urged
language planners to remove foreign words from Persian language on the one hand and protect it against new
foreign words, on the other hand.
Among the important aspects of language planning, the one having a direct relationship with language status
planning is the choice of an official language.
2-1. Official/ National Language Choice and Approaches
The terms official language and national language are distinguished from each other. An official language is a
language which is recognized by government officials, but a national language is a language which either is used
as the common language among the people of a country in contrast with the local languages or plays the role of a
national symbol in contrast with a colonial foreign language (Garvin, 1973; as cited in Modarresi, 1989: 244). In
the context of Iran, Persian is both the sole official and national language.
As cited in Modarresi (2004), sociolinguists follow two different approaches in the choice of official and
national languages: language unity, that is one country with one official/national language; language pluralism,
that is one country with several official/ national languages.
Following the unity approach, one language from among the languages and dialects in a country is selected as
the national and official language. Countries such as France, Germany, and England follow the unity approach.
In such a model, there is an emphasis on the acquisition and use of a common language as a symbol of the
national identity by all the people of a country. In language unity approach, minority languages are in the margin
and the primitive linguistic rights of the speakers of such languages are sometimes neglected.
To refer to the approach in question, Haugen (1985) has used the term centralism beside the terms unity and
assimilation. In his opinion, language unity resembles a steamroller which wipes out ethnic groups and their
languages through the spread of national (and international) languages by radio and TV. Haugen believes that in
such situations the minority groups struggle to assert their own linguistic rights. Such struggles between
dominated and dominant groups for the right to survive include, as Haugen puts it, the ecology of language. That
is, the preservation of language is a part of human ecology, which in turn is a branch the larger disciplines of
sociology and political science.
In the second approach, that is language pluralism, which has been labeled as coexistence by Haugen (ibid.), it is
possible for various linguistic groups in a country to coexist. Haugen has distinguished between language
pluralism and language diversity. In his opinion, language pluralism is not a natural condition. It is, however, a
goal and, as cited in Berry (1974), a theory which can be approached through careful and delicate policies.
Through the application of language pluralism, language planners help various linguistic groups coexist in one
country and enjoy identical ethnic and linguistic rights. Unlike language pluralism, language diversity is a
natural state. For example, in Nigeria more than two hundred aboriginal languages and dialects fulfill the
communication needs of various ethnic and linguistic groups. According to Haugen, such a condition is not
favorable for educational systems. Hence a country may enjoy language diversity without pluralism since
through pluralism the natural state of affairs give way to planned and favorable conditions (Modarresi, ibid.).
Wardhaugh( ibid. :337) defines pluralism as recognizing more than one language and divides it into two types:
complete and partial; that is, all or only some aspects of life can be conducted in more than one language in a
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society. Examples are countries like Belgium, Canada, Singapore, South Africa, and Switzerland. As cited in
Modarresi (2005), in the above-mentioned countries all linguistic groups enjoy their linguistic rights equally
despite the fact that from among different languages only one may have the largest number of speakers, the most
widespread use, and the highest status in the realm of science and literature. As an example, although English
and French in Canada legitimately enjoy equal status in various areas such as education, media, and legislation,
English outweighs French in use, status, and prestige.
Haugen (ibid.), referring to the increasing interest of sociolinguists in studying minority groups, has cited
Schermerhorn (1964)'s two-dimensional model which encompasses cultural prominence on the one hand and a
form of the submission of the minority group, on the other hand. In Schermerhorn's model, a minority group is
considered a cultural group with no power and autonomy and the term minority group is utilized euphemistically
in the place of the term conquered group. The model in question is in parallel with language pluralism since in
language pluralism, the linguistic rights of a minority group as a group with cultural values are held in respect.
According to Haugen (ibid.), in Switzerland no one is trying to force their language or culture upon anyone else.
The central government has no ambition to homogenize or uniform the languages of its population. Each canton
has its own language. It is only because no one part dominates the others; and each one leaves the rest alone. So,
it can be argued that Switzerland is a truly pluralistic country.
Along with language unity and pluralism, Modarresi (ibid.) has put forward another model which can probably
be a combination of language unity and pluralism, as pointed out by Modarresi (ibid.). In this combined model,
more than one official and local language coexist with a common national language; hence, on the one hand the
linguistic rights of various linguistic-ethnic groups are valued and on the other hand, unification and national
identity are preserved and highlighted through one common official language as a symbol of nationality and
unity. The concerned model can be clearly observed in India, where fourteen local languages such as Bengali,
Marathi, and Urdu have been recognized along with the common official language, that is Hindi.
However, each of the three models, i.e. unity, pluralism, and the combined model, has its own problems.
Referring to the drawbacks of the unity model, Modarresi (ibid.) has highlighted ethnic and linguistic
discrimination among minority groups, problems of monolingual educational system for minorities (particularly
early in elementary school), and relatively high illiteracy rate in minority areas. As opposed to language unity,
pluralism strengthens localism and separatism, weakens national unity, and puts obstacles before modernism,
development, and executive issues of multilingual educational systems. As for the combined model, it is very
costly and requires high executive power; however, it preserves both ethnic attachment and national identity and
unity on condition that everything runs appropriately.
3. Multilingualism in Iran
As mentioned earlier, Iran is a multiethnic-multilingual country as it enjoys ethnic-linguistic diversity. It should
be noted that from the two individual and societal dimensions of multilingualism, only the societal one is in
question in the present paper. From among various languages in Iran such as Persian, Azeri, Baluchi, and
Kurdish, Persian is the sole official and national language. Evidenced by the 15th principle of the constitution of
Islamic Republic of Iran, both Persian language and orthography are official and common among various ethniclinguistic groups in the country. Hence, every official document, text, and course book has to be written in
Persian language and orthography. However, the concerned principle of the constitution has not overlooked the
local languages in Iran. Based on the principle in question, making use of local languages in Press, mass media,
as well as teaching their literature at schools, is not forbidden. Regarding the choice of Persian as the sole official
and national language in Iran, Modarresi (1989:246) has pointed out that in early Islamic centuries, Persian was
the spoken language of the capital city and later of important regions such as Khorasan. It gradually grew into
the language of elite and scholars and hence turned into both a spoken and written language. Equipped with such
a firm literary and social support and in a natural long run, Persian rose to the status of the country's official
language.
Modarresi(1992) has put the linguistic issues of Iran into two general categories: issues related to Persian as the
sole official, national, and common language of all Iranians and issues related to the country's local languages
and dialects which are spoken by a remarkable number of Iranians. Considering the mentioned linguistic issues
of Iran, Modarresi (ibid.) has maintained that language planning activities can be directed at two main areas:
strengthening and developing Persian language on the one hand and strengthening and developing local
languages and dialects, on the other hand.
In terms of strengthening Persian language, Modarresi believes that considering the increasing development of
science and technology in recent years and in order to satisfy the communication needs of society in all scientific,
educational, and cultural areas, Persian language requires strengthening and renovation in its general sense. In
Modarresi's idea, another aspect of the great and important work of Persian language planning is finding proper,
scientific, and unbiased methods of teaching it to the speakers of local languages in order to develop Persian.
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Modarresi(ibid.) has pointed out that providing proper conditions for all L2 Persian learners, especially preschool children, is inevitable in order to help them learn Persian. Otherwise, insufficient proficiency of nonPersian speaking school children in Persian as the language of education and, as a consequence, the incidence of
educational failure are not unexpected.
Planning for the strengthening and development of local languages and dialects is another area for language
planners in the country as the speakers of the local languages and dialects are naturally interested in preserving
and strengthening them.
Modarresi(2005) has considered the choice of Persian as the sole official and national language of Iran in parallel
with language unity approach. That is, from among various languages in Iran, only Persian plays the role of
official and national language while other languages enjoy local and non-official uses. In Modarresi (ibid.)'s
words, language planners and policy makers in Iran approach minority languages and dialects conservatively and
cautiously. This policy is in parallel with the presupposition of language unity approach on the basis of which the
one nation, one country, and one language model is a crucial factor in preserving national unity and eradicates
the separatism probability.
4. National Language, National Identity, and National Unity in Iran
As went above in section 2.1, Garvin has defined national language as the common language in a country in
contrast with local languages and also as a national symbol in contrast with a colonial foreign language. National
identity, in Ahmadi(2003:9)'s words ( as cited in Ghamari & Hassanzadeh, 2010), is the feeling of an individual's
belonging to a particular country. People have just one national identity. As psychologists such as Piaget and
Freud (as cited in Ghamari & Hassanzadeh, ibid) put it, national identity is the highest and best type of human
identities1.
Concerning the relationships between national language and national identity, it can be argued that they are
interrelated. On the one hand, national language is the basis of national identity and on the other hand, national
identity affects national language. Rahman (2007:2), a Pakistani sociologist, has maintained that the national
language of Urdu and the religion the means of the unity of various Islamic sects in Pakistan (as cited in
Ghamari & Hassanzadeh, ibid). Therefore, the strengthening of both national identity and national language can
bring about national unity.
In multiethnic-multilingual Iran, Persian as the national language and a symbol of national (Iranian) identity has
been able to unify various ethnic groups. Fallah (2007) has pointed out that Persian language is both a key to the
unity of all ethnic groups, sects, and social classes in Iran and a means of preventing chaos and separation in the
country. Fallah (ibid.) highlights the important point that focusing on the importance of Persian language as the
national language of Iranians should not have the importance and status of other languages and dialects in the
country neglected. As Ghamari & Hassanzadeh( ibid) put it, minority groups resist any attempt which may
menace their ethnic languages. In the present paper, the researcher tries to evaluate the state of Azeri language as
one of the non-official languages in Iran and answers the following central question: how much has the status of
Azeri language in Iran been affected by the fact that Persian language is centered on as it is one of the
determinant factors of the unity all ethnic groups in Iran?
5. Methodology
5.1. Data collection
The data of the present paper contain local television and radio programs, publications, and children's names in
both Persian language and Azeri language in East Azerbaijan Province. To collect the required data, the
researcher attended Television & Radio organization, Press & Advertisement department, and Civil Registration
organization of East Azerbaijan Province. The data collection procedure was conducted in May, 2012.
5.2. Data Analysis
The analysis of the data related to the productions of television and radio comes first. Table 1 reveals that both
the number and the duration of radio and television programs produced in Azeri language outweigh those
produced in the national language, i.e. Persian. Although the outweighing number and duration are not
unexpected of the local television and radio channels, the possibility of producing programs in a local and nonofficial language, i.e. Azeri, with the above-mentioned volume through state-run television and radio is an
indication of holding the local language and the cultural values of its speakers in respect. Another crucial point in
terms of television and radio programs produced in Azeri language is that in addition to the mentioned quantity
of the programs, their quality is considerable, too. That is, the programs broadcasted in Azeri in May, 2012
covered a wide range of subjects such as social, cultural and political talk shows, movies, serials, and sport
programs.
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In the following comes the analysis of the data related to the publications of East Azerbaijan Province. Tables 2
and 3 indicate that from among 106 published journals in East Azerbaijan Province in 2010 1, 43 journals, i.e.
approximately % 40/56, had been published in Azeri language.
Based on the information in both table 2 and table 3 and considering the fact that a considerable number of
provincial publications are in Azeri language, it can be argued that Azeri as a local and non-official language is
not being suppressed by the national Persian language.
At the end comes the analysis of the frequency of children's names in East Azerbaijan Province in 2011 2. Table
4 shows the distribution of the topmost twenty names with the highest frequency.
Table 4 shows that all male names and approximately 80/59 percent of female names are in Arabic, which is the
language of religion in Iran and is in parallel with the religious identity of Iranians. Along with Arabic and
Persian names, 1193 (approximately % 8/18) names are in Azeri, which is indicative of preserving ethnic
identity. The fact that Azeri children in Iran are legitimately allowed to have their ethnic names indicates that
Azeri as a local language is not pushed to the margin. On the contrary, Azeri language is the center of public
attraction in East Azerbaijan Province.
6. Conclusion
Persian language has been chosen as the sole official and national language of Iran in the framework of language
unity approach. The principal aim of the mentioned approach is trying to preserve the national unity in a
multiethnic-multilingual country via choosing one language as the official and national language. In the extreme
version of the unity approach, local and non-official languages are pushed to the margin and their native
speakers have to acquire the official and national language in order to use it in formal situations. As observed in
the data analysis section of the present paper, it can be argued (at least in the case of Azeri language) that the
language unity approach in Iran has taken a sound version. That is, not only is it not in the pursuit of
marginalizing and suppressing the local languages, but it has also paved the ground for such languages to
preserve their status. Assuming the three main approaches to official/national language choice on a continuum
with the extreme version of language unity on the one end, the complete version of pluralism on the other end,
and the combined approach in the middle, the language unity approach in Iran can be claimed to have distanced
itself from its extreme version and can also be partially claimed to have taken threads of the combined approach
though none of the local languages has been labeled as an official language. The unbiased linguistic policy in
Iran rooted in the justice-oriented policies of Islamic Republic of Iran helps the speakers of local and non-official
languages to grow more positive attitudes toward Persian language and encourages them to preserve the status of
Persian as one of the determinant factors of the unity of all Iranians.
Notes
1. The other two types of identities are individual and ethnic ones.
2. At the time of the study, there was no systematic information available any longer than 2010.
3. At the time of the study, there was no systematic information available any longer than 2011.
References
Cooper R. L. (1989), Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Fallah, M. (2007), “ The role of Persian in national uniformity and unity in Ian”,
Ghohare Ghuya 4, 131-164.
Ghamari, M. R. & Hassanzadeh, M. (2010), “The role of language in national identity”,
Zaban Pazhuhi, Alzahra University 3, 153-170.
Haugen, E.(1985), "The language of Imperialism: Unity or Pluralism?" , In Language of
Inequality. Nessa Wolfson , Joan Manes (eds.), Mouton publishers, 3-17.
Milligan, L .(2007), “ A Systems Model of language Planning”, www. Ling. Com. Ac.
Uk/camling /, 192-198.
Modarresi, Y.( 1989), An introduction to sociolinguistics. Tehran: Cultural Studies and Researches Institute.
Modarresi, Y.( 1992), “ Linguistic issues and language planning in Iran”, Farhang 13, 177-206.
Modarresi, Y.( 2005), “ Ethnic- linguistic pluralism and national identity”, Nameye Ensan
Shenasi 7, 129-146.
Spolsky, b. (1998), Sociolinguistics. Oxford University Press.
Wardhaugh, R. (1986), An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Basil Blackwell.
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Vol.3, No.18, 2013
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M= medium L= language N= number D= duration BP= broadcast percentage T= total
Table 1. Frequency of radio & TV programs
M
T
L
Azeri
Persian-Azeri
N=46
N
15
20
11
D= 434 h, 27', 22"
D
129 h,25', 36"
305 h, 1',46"
BP
29/79 %
70/21%
L
Persian
Azeri
Persian-Azeri
N=28
N
5
12
11
D= 221 h, 55', 39"
D
36 h, 50', 26"
185 h, 5', 13"
BP
Radio
Persian
16/60 %
83/40 %
P= 100 %
TV
Table 2. Frequency publications
Publication type
N.
8
language
Persian
Persian-Azeri
Persian
Persian-Azeri
Persian
Persian-Azeri
Persian
Persian-Azeri
Persian
Persian-Azeri-English
Persian- َ◌Arabic-English
Persian-English
Persian
Persian-Azeri
Persian-English
Persian- َ◌Arabic-English Azeri
Persian
Persian-Azeri
106
Daily
34
Weekly
2
Semiweekly
5
Biweekly
27
Quarterly
27
Monthly
3
Semiannual
Total
Table 3. Linguistic frequency of publications
publication
Persian
PersianArabiclanguage
Azeri
PersianEnglish
No.
51
41
P= 100 %
1
PersianAzeriEnglish
1
Table 4. Frequency of children's names in 2011
language
Arabic
sex
male
female
male
No.
17481
11748
percentage
100%
80/59%
names
AbolfazlZahraAli-.Ehsan
Fatemeh.Kosar
Persian
female
1636
11/22%
Setayesh- Hasti
88
PersianEnglish
11
Azeri
male
-
N.
2
6
10
24
2
2
3
17
1
1
8
17
6
3
1
3
106
PersianAzeriEnglishArabic
1
Total
106
female
1193
8/18%
Ailin- Ainaz-Aida
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