Minerals Deficiencies in Poultry Causes ,Effect & Treatment.A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus in the diet of young growing birds results in abnormal bone development even when the diet contains adequate vitamin D3 . A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus results in lack of normal skeletal calcification. Rickets is seen mainly in growing birds, while calcium deficiency in laying hens results in reduced shell quality and osteoporosis. This depletion of bone structure causes a disorder that is commonly referred to as “cage layer fatigue.” When calcium is mobilized from bone to overcome a dietary deficiency, the cortical bone erodes and is unable to support the weight of the hen. A deficiency of manganese in the diet of immature chickens and turkeys is one of the causes of perosis and of thin-shelled eggs and poor hatchability in mature birds (also see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Calcium and Phosphorus Imbalances). It can also cause chondrodystrophy.
The most dramatic effect of manganese deficiency syndrome is perosis, characterized by enlargement and malformation of the tibiometatarsal joint, twisting and bending of the distal end of the tibia and the proximal end of the tarsometatarsus, thickening and shortening of the leg bones, and slippage of the gastrocnemius tendon from its chondyles. Elevated intakes of calcium and/or phosphorus will aggravate the condition due to reduced absorption of magnesium by precipitated calcium phosphate in the intestinal tract.
In laying hens, reduced egg production, markedly reduced hatchability, and eggshell thinning are often noted. Deficiencies of both iron and copper can lead to anemia. Iron deficiency causes a severe anemia with a reduction in PCV. In color-feathered strains, there is also loss of pigmentation in the feathers. The birds' requirements for RBC synthesis take precedence over metabolism of feather pigments, although if a fortified diet is introduced, all subsequent feather growth is normal. Iron may be needed not only for the red feather pigments, which are known to contain iron, but also to function in an enzyme system involved in the pigmentation process.
"عسى ان تكون علما ينتفع به"
Role of trace minerals in poultry nutrition
Difference between organic and inorganic source of trace minerals
Poultry nutrition
Importance of Vitamins and Minerals for Dairy Cattle. The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Dairy Planner magazine, March – 2021 edition.
"عسى ان تكون علما ينتفع به"
Role of trace minerals in poultry nutrition
Difference between organic and inorganic source of trace minerals
Poultry nutrition
Importance of Vitamins and Minerals for Dairy Cattle. The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Dairy Planner magazine, March – 2021 edition.
A nutritional deficiency may be due to a nutrient being omitted from the diet, adverse interaction between nutrients in otherwise apparently well-fortified diets, or the overriding effect of specific antinutrients.
Lecturer notes for metabolic diseases in Cattle.which is benificial for student of BVSc& AH/DVM and MVsc student. It is My first presentation need your feedback for more presentation like this.
Factors influencing the nutrient requirements in poultrySunil Yadav
This Presentation will help you to understand the various factors that are responsible for the nutrient requirement of poultry. While formulating feed for any classes of poultry we should consider all these factors for a better outcome from the bird.
The liver is the central laboratory of a chicken’s body. It is essential that this organ is kept in an excellent condition in order to maintain a healthy bird. Understanding the metabolic function and causes of disruptions in liver functions helps us to provide the birds with the right feed and health treatment.
When we cut open the body of a chicken, the first organ that is most likely revealed is the liver. The message is clear. Nature wants us to examine the liver carefully before
proceeding to the other organs.The liver contains great functional reserve capacity, which is very important in domestic animals subjected to high production requirements. This organ adapts easily to different conditions by increasing the intensity of its functions.
Particularly in broilers, the liver has to cope with many challenges, including
high energy level feed, the addition of chemotherapeutics, coccidiostats
and others, whose desired metabolites must be maintained in equilibrium by hepatic homeostasis.Incidental treatments with highly hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic antibiotics
or sulfonamides pose serious risks and cause situations of difficult prognosis during a 40-45 day period in which the body acquires satisfactory muscular mass. What is the function of the liver and what might be the cause of malfunctioning?
Advances in vitamin & mineral nutrition in livestockRameswar Panda
feeding management cannot be ignored under any circumstances. This presentation depicts the tangential and burning points related to the role and significance of Vitamins and minerals for the livestock
Proper vaccination is an essential part of a good poultry management program and for the success of any poultry operation. Effective preventive procedures such as immunisation protect hundreds of millions of poultry worldwide from many contagious and deadly diseases and have resulted in improved flock health and production efficiency.
Immunization cannot be a substitute for poor bio-security and sanitation. Thus, vaccination programs may not totally protect birds that are under stress or in unhygienic conditions. The primary objective of immunizing any poultry flock is to reduce the level of clinical disease and to promote optimal performance. Certain vaccines may also have an impact on human health (i.e. Salmonella vaccines).
For breeders – we also want to accomplish some additional goals:
A. Protect the bird (as a pullet and hen) against specific diseases.
B. Protect the progeny of the hen against vertical transmission of disease.
C. Provide passive immunity to progeny.
As work with the broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results. Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.To get the full potential out of broiler chickens it is important that the target weight at seven days
of age should be reached. As work with the Cobb 500 broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results.
Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.Several different parameters can be used to determine the quality of the chick at an early age such as live weight, growth, crop fill, body temperature, livability and mortality. Comparable parameter needs to be
objective, easy to perform, highly repeatable and inexpensive. Measuring live weight at day seven is a well-established and accepted way of assessing pre-placement management, brooding and chick quality.
The seven-day weight has significant impact on most important parameters such as performance, carcass and body composition. There is generally a peak in mortality at day three to four, most likely due to the absorption of the yolk sac in the intestine of chicks; if feed and water intake is not optimum, nonstarter/ cull chicks will add to the mortality that occurs a few days later.
A nutritional deficiency may be due to a nutrient being omitted from the diet, adverse interaction between nutrients in otherwise apparently well-fortified diets, or the overriding effect of specific antinutrients.
Lecturer notes for metabolic diseases in Cattle.which is benificial for student of BVSc& AH/DVM and MVsc student. It is My first presentation need your feedback for more presentation like this.
Factors influencing the nutrient requirements in poultrySunil Yadav
This Presentation will help you to understand the various factors that are responsible for the nutrient requirement of poultry. While formulating feed for any classes of poultry we should consider all these factors for a better outcome from the bird.
The liver is the central laboratory of a chicken’s body. It is essential that this organ is kept in an excellent condition in order to maintain a healthy bird. Understanding the metabolic function and causes of disruptions in liver functions helps us to provide the birds with the right feed and health treatment.
When we cut open the body of a chicken, the first organ that is most likely revealed is the liver. The message is clear. Nature wants us to examine the liver carefully before
proceeding to the other organs.The liver contains great functional reserve capacity, which is very important in domestic animals subjected to high production requirements. This organ adapts easily to different conditions by increasing the intensity of its functions.
Particularly in broilers, the liver has to cope with many challenges, including
high energy level feed, the addition of chemotherapeutics, coccidiostats
and others, whose desired metabolites must be maintained in equilibrium by hepatic homeostasis.Incidental treatments with highly hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic antibiotics
or sulfonamides pose serious risks and cause situations of difficult prognosis during a 40-45 day period in which the body acquires satisfactory muscular mass. What is the function of the liver and what might be the cause of malfunctioning?
Advances in vitamin & mineral nutrition in livestockRameswar Panda
feeding management cannot be ignored under any circumstances. This presentation depicts the tangential and burning points related to the role and significance of Vitamins and minerals for the livestock
Proper vaccination is an essential part of a good poultry management program and for the success of any poultry operation. Effective preventive procedures such as immunisation protect hundreds of millions of poultry worldwide from many contagious and deadly diseases and have resulted in improved flock health and production efficiency.
Immunization cannot be a substitute for poor bio-security and sanitation. Thus, vaccination programs may not totally protect birds that are under stress or in unhygienic conditions. The primary objective of immunizing any poultry flock is to reduce the level of clinical disease and to promote optimal performance. Certain vaccines may also have an impact on human health (i.e. Salmonella vaccines).
For breeders – we also want to accomplish some additional goals:
A. Protect the bird (as a pullet and hen) against specific diseases.
B. Protect the progeny of the hen against vertical transmission of disease.
C. Provide passive immunity to progeny.
As work with the broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results. Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.To get the full potential out of broiler chickens it is important that the target weight at seven days
of age should be reached. As work with the Cobb 500 broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results.
Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.Several different parameters can be used to determine the quality of the chick at an early age such as live weight, growth, crop fill, body temperature, livability and mortality. Comparable parameter needs to be
objective, easy to perform, highly repeatable and inexpensive. Measuring live weight at day seven is a well-established and accepted way of assessing pre-placement management, brooding and chick quality.
The seven-day weight has significant impact on most important parameters such as performance, carcass and body composition. There is generally a peak in mortality at day three to four, most likely due to the absorption of the yolk sac in the intestine of chicks; if feed and water intake is not optimum, nonstarter/ cull chicks will add to the mortality that occurs a few days later.
An overview of the internal organs of the female chicken is shown in figures and number of different systems are represented and they will be discussed individually.Contents:
Digestive system
Respiratory system
Skeletal system
Muscle system
Reproductive system - female
Reproductive system - male
Circulatory system
Nervous system
Excretory system
Immune system
An overview of the internal organs of the female chicken is shown in Figure 3.1. A
number of different systems are represented and they will be discussed individually.
There are many factors which affect feed intake of chickens and hence determine nutrient intake level and efficiency of poultry production. Although the spectrum of these factors is very broad, here the focus will be made on management and environment, feed and water, and physical factors. Management and environment play an important role in controlling feed intake and efficiency. Poultry producers should, therefore, make use of the current technology and recent research works aiming at optimising management practices and micro-environment for better feed intake and utilisation.
Poultry production can be divided into four sectors:
1. industrial and integrated, 2.commercial high bio-security, 3. commercial low bio-security, 4. village, and family or backyard poultry. The focus here is largely on sectors 3 and 4 but there may be some overlap.
‘Family poultry’ as defined by the International Network for Family Poultry Development, covers sectors 3 and 4 which encompass small - scale poultry production.
There are numerous poultry handbooks which cover sectors 2 and 3, but this hand book has attempted, in two manuals, to cover mainly sector 3 while not ignoring the great importance of bio-security particularly in the face of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1). It is envisaged that, given time, some producers, now in sector 3 may move into sector 2.
The two manuals are pitched at two different levels.
The Trainer’s (instructor) manual assumes that the trainer has qualifications and/or experience in a branch of agricultural science but not necessarily in poultry production. Some of the material included is beyond that necessary to give an initial course in poultry production but may be useful as the farmer progresses from sector 3 to sector 2. The trainee’s manual has numerous illustrations and is aimed at a lower level than for the trainer.
The farmer may be interested in starting a poultry enterprise is already producing poultry in a small - scale commercial or semi-commercial (opportunistic) situation but would like to make poultry farming more permanent. The course will allow the farmer to increase his/her knowledge and skills and to become aware of a number of important issues (e.g. managing the environment, disease surveillance) of his/her enterprise.
In order to minimise repetition, there is some material in the trainee’s manual that is not in the trainer’s manual. Trainers should familiarise themselves thoroughly with both manuals.
The third manual is for the millions of families, worldwide, in low – income,
developing countries who keep backyard poultry, mainly unmanaged, with few inputs, but nevertheless are of great importance by providing, some security, income and high – quality protein. It is hoped that this manual will make families aware of the possibility of improving output with a minimum of input.
Much of the information has been taken from a range of sources as well as the author’s own experience of working in several developing countries over 25 years.
Ideally, there should be a small-scale demonstration unit or a poultry farm available so that the trainees can see, first hand, and better understand the main points in these manuals and observe how commercial poultry production should be practised.
Broiler poultry farming is a lucrative business. Generally highly meat productive birds or poultry breeds are called broiler poultry. But broiler chicken is a special species of poultry, which is a great secret. Only four countries of the world knows about this secret and they supply and maintain all the demand of broiler chickens. Broilers are like other common poultry birds. But this broiler is made in a scientific way for producing more meat in a short time. Basically, broilers are only for meat production.
A good poultry health management is an important component of poultry production. Infectious disease causing agents will spread through a flock very quickly because of the high stocking densities of commercially housed poultry.
For poultry health management to be effective a primary aim must be to prevent the onset of disease or parasites, to recognize at an early stage the presence of disease or parasites, and to treat all flocks that are diseased or infested with parasites as soon as possible and before they develop into a serious condition or spread to other flocks. To be able to do this it is necessary to know how to recognize that the birds are diseased, the action required for preventing or minimising disease and how to monitor for signs that the prevention program is working.
In this article it has been described :
Identify the threats to our poultry and how disease agents
might enter a poultry farm
Identify the costs of diseases and their prevention
Define the three principles of biosecurity:
Segregation & Traffic control
Cleaning
Disinfection
Identify biosecurity risks present in a poultry farm
There are four main types of disease affecting poultry: metabolic and nutritional diseases; infectious diseases; parasitic diseases; and behavioural diseases.
Metabolic and nutritional diseases
These are conditions caused by a disturbance of normal metabolic functions either through a genetic defect, inadequate or inappropriate nutrition or impaired nutrient utilisation. These include Fatty Liver Syndrome, Perosis (or slipped tendon), Rickets and Cage Layer Fatigue.
Infectious diseases
An infectious disease is any disease caused by invasion of a host by a pathogen which subsequently grows and multiplies in the body. Infectious diseases are often contagious, which means they can be spread directly or indirectly from one living thing to another. These include Avian Encephalomyelitis, Avian Influenza, Avian Tuberculosis, Chicken Anaemia Virus Infection (or CAV), Chlamydiosis, Egg Drop Syndrome (or EDS), Fowl Cholera (or Pasteurellosis), Fowl Pox, Infectious Bronchitis, Infectious Bursal Disease (or Gumboro), Infectious Coryza, Infectious Laryngotracheitis, Lymphoid Leukosis, Marek’s Disease, Mycoplasmosis, Necrotic Enteritis, Newcastle Disease and Salmonellosis.
Parasitic diseases
Parasitic diseases are infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure. A parasite is an organism that lives in or on, and takes its nourishment from, another organism. A parasite cannot live independently. These include Coccidiosis, Cryptosporidiosis, Histomoniasis, Lice and Mites, Parasitic Worms (or Helminths), Toxoplasmosis and Trichomoniasis.
Behavioural diseases
Abnormal behavioural patterns can lead to injury or ill health of the abnormally behaving bird and/or its companions. These include Cannibalism (or aggressive pecking).
The purpose of the Handbook of Poultry Diseases is to acquaint veterinarians and poultry health professionals with current information on the diagnosis and prevention of poultry disease in commercial broiler and egg production flocks in emerging and established industries. Productivity and profitability are enhanced by application of sound principles of bio security, vaccination, and management. Improving efficiency increases the availability of eggs and poultry meat to supply the protein needs of populations in countries with expanding demand.
During the past two decades, primary breeders of broiler, egg and laying strains have eliminated vertically-transmitted diseases from their elite and great-grandparent generations. Unfortunately, infection of grandparent and parent flocks occurs in many developing countries resulting in dissemination of diseases including mycoplasmosis, salmonellosis and reoviral infection.
Improved bio security and an awareness of the need for appropriate vaccination programs, reduces the potential losses caused by both catastrophic and erosive infections on commercial-scale farms, village cooperatives and in integrated operations.
To get more free guides and literature and books please visit www.growelagrovet.com
This color atlas of poultry diseases .This is very useful guide for poultry farmers & poultry practicing professionals.The atlas contains colour photographs demonstrating the overall pathology of birds. The book includes more than 50 diseases from avian infectious pathology and a similar number from non-infectious pathology.There are both classic and well known diseases and new and little known diseases. The book is designed for veterinarians, veterinary students, poultry farmers and poultry specialists.
To get more free guides and literature and books please visit www.growelagrovet.com
This manual is a brief guide to preventing, diagnosing and controlling poultry diseases. All major poultry diseases are discussed in detail. The description of each disease includes information about its cause, the susceptibility of poultry species, ways the disease is transmitted, clinical signs and lesions, how the disease is diagnosed, and ways to treat it. There are colour photos to aid in disease identification. There is additional information on the nature and cause of disease and on sanitation practices, and a glossary of common terms. The book is fully indexed so that diseases can be found by both their formal and common names
Broiler Farming Management Guide is designed to help Aviagen’s customers achieve optimum performance from their birds. While not intended to provide definitive information on every aspect of management, this manual does draw attention to important issues that if overlooked or inadequately addressed may depress flock performance. The objective of this manual is to provide management techniques that help growers achieve good overall bird performance from day one through to processing while promoting bird health and welfare.
Aviagen applies a balanced approach to genetic progress, concentrating on commercial traits such as growth rate, feed conversion ratio, livability and meat yield, while improving bird welfare in areas such as leg health, cardiovascular fitness and robustness.
Achieving the genetic potential of the birds depends on three key factors:
• Management to provide birds with their required environment.
• A dietary regimen that offers nutrients in the appropriate profile.
• Effective biosecurity and disease control programs.
These three sectors, environment, nutrition and health, are interdependent. A shortfall in anyone will bring negative consequences to the others and if any one of these elements is sub-optimal, broiler performance will suffer.In reality, the guidance of a manual such as this cannot wholly protect against performance variations that may occur for a wide variety of reasons. While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and relevance of the information presented, Aviagen accepts no liability for the consequences of using this information for the management of chickens. Information presented in this manual combines data derived from internal research.
Poultry Business Guide ,Those Who are Interested to Start Their Own.Advice for those thinking of starting their own chicken flock for meat or eggs from Dr Tom Tabler, Dr Dustan Clark, Jessica Wells, Dr Wei Zhai and Dr Haitham Yakout with the Mississippi State University Extension Service.
Maintaining a small flock of poultry can be a rewarding experience and is an excellent
venture for a small or part-time farmer. People keep backyard flocks for many reasons –
for meat or eggs, as a hobby for adults or children, or perhaps for show and exhibition.
Backyard poultry can supplement family food supplies, and small producers may choose to sell their products to several niche markets. These can include brown eggs, free-range meat and eggs, live birds for the increasing number of ethnic markets, and organic meat and eggs. Whatever the reason, if you are considering managing a backyard flock,
you must be aware that raising poultry requires time, labour and money.
Birds need care seven days a week, including weekends and holidays. Before you buy
any birds, be sure you are willing and able to give that care. Also, do your homework,
starting with research and planning.
Genetic progress over the last 10 years has steadily improved broiler economic performance. One component of this is growth potential which has increased each year by 60 grams at six weeks of age. In order to achieve a standard processing weight (of e.g. 2kg), the age at which a flock of broilers are killed has fallen by, on average, 1 day per year over this time. Birds of 2kg that were killed at 49 days in 1988 are now killed at 39 days.
The consequence of this change is that the brooding period now takes up a much bigger proportion of the whole growing period and is more important in the final performance of the flock. Over the same 10 year period, the equipment used in brooding and starting chickens has changed, and some of these changes have significant consequences for the well-being of the day-old chick.
Our customers have become more focussed on the predictability of performance and uniformity of the product at all stages, especially in the processing plant. Many features of broiler management can affect uniformity and, in some cases, small changes in management technique can make a previously unimportant factor critical (e.g. the need for more feeding space once feed intake control is initiated) This Ross Tech is aimed at encouraging better general management and especially brooding management for broiler flocks, to improve performance and uniformity
Layer poultry farming means raising egg laying poultry birds for the purpose of commercial egg production. Layer chickens are such a special species of hens, which need to be raised from when they are one day old. They start laying eggs commercially from 18-19 weeks of age. They remain laying eggs continuously till their 72-78 weeks of age. They can produce about one kg of eggs by consuming about 2.25 kg of food during their egg laying period. For the purpose of producing hybrid eggs layer, consider the various characteristics of cock and hen before breeding. There are various types of highly egg productive layer breeds available throughout the world.
All of the above poultry-keeping methods are used in the developing world,but the majority of the enterprises are backyard poultry and farm flock production. The poultry and egg sectors are highly fragmented. Most of the production is carried out by a large number of farmers, each with a very small flock. The greater part of produce is sold in markets close to the farms.
Day-old chicks are usually obtained from local hatcheries licensed by international hybrid breeding companies. Farmers or cooperatives of farmers may choose between varieties of chickens for egg production and meat production.
The small chicks can be either naturally or artificially brooded. If artificially brooded, small chicks must be placed in a separate house from laying chickens and it is necessary to protect the chicks from predators, diseases and catching colds.
This stage of brooding lasts for eight weeks. In the first four weeks of life, small chicks need to be housed in a brooding box. Some typical types of brooders are shown below and on the previous page.
Typically, a layer’s production cycle lasts just over a year (52-56 weeks). During the production cycle many factors influence egg production; therefore, the cycle must be managed effectively and efficiently in order to provide maximum output and profitability.
How To Do Poultry Farming in Summer? The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Poultry Square magazine, May – 2021 edition.
What is diarrhea in cattle and what causes it?
• Diarrhea (purging, scours) can have many causes.
• Possible causes include bacterial and viral infections, certain chemicals, intestinal parasites, poor diet, overfeeding on milk or lush grass, poisonous plants and other toxins, food allergies and even stress.
• In diarrhea, the intestine fails to adequately absorb fluids, and/or secretion into the intestine is increased. Loss of fluids through diarrhea produces dehydration and the loss of certain body salts.
• It causes a change in body tissue composition and severe depression in the animal.
• Death from scours is usually the result of dehydration and loss of body salts rather than invasion of an infectious agent.
• The correct determination of the cause of diarrhea is important in order to take effective preventive measures.
Domestication of the European rabbit probably occurred in monasteries during the Middle Ages. By the middle of the 17th century, rabbits were commonly raised in England and continental Europe. Oryctolagus cuniculus, one of the more successful mammals of the world, is both prolific and adaptable.
Most of the fancy breeds were developed within the past 100 years, and only since the early 1900s have rabbits been raised domestically in the United
States. The first commercial colonies were started in southern California. Meat rationing during World War II gave the infant industry a push. Today, approximately 200,000 people are engaged in some phase of the rabbit business
in the United States, and animals are produced in every state. Meat processors serving major cities market more than 10 million pounds of rabbit meat annually.
कुखरा पालन (ब्रोइलर) पूर्ण रोजगारीका साथ मनग्य आम्दानी गर्न सकिने भरपर्दो पेशा हो । यो रोजगारी भएका तर समय बचत गर्न सक्ने व्यक्तिका लागि पनि उपयुक्त हुन्छ । न्यून आय भएका अर्धबेरोजगार व्यक्तिका लागि थप आयआर्जन गर्न यो पेशा सहायक सिद्ध हुन सक्छ । यो पेशा थोरै जग्गा तथा कम लगानीमै सञ्चालन गर्न सकिन्छ । यसको उत्पादन ५–६ हप्तामै भित्र्याउन सकिन्छ र वर्षमा ६–७ पटकसम्म कुखुरा बेच्न सकिन्छ । यो व्यवसाय गर्न धेरै ठूलो तालिमको आवश्यकता समेत पर्दैन ।
नेपालमा यो व्यवसाय सञ्चालनका लागि आवश्यक सामग्री सहज उपलब्ध छन् । साथै, सहज बजार पहुँचले उत्पादनपछिको विक्रीवितरणमा समेत समस्या छैन । यो व्यवसाय सञ्चालन गर्दा प्रारम्भमा सानो आकार अर्थात् १ सयदेखि २ सयबाट शुरू गर्नु उपयुक्त हुन्छ । र, बिस्तारै कुखुरा पालनको अनुभव बटुली व्यावसायिक रूपमा यो पेशा सञ्चालन गर्न सजिलो हुन्छ ।
नेपालमा बाख्रापालनबाट राम्रो फाइदा लिन सकिन्छ । चाहना राख्ने धेरैले बाख्रापालन सम्कन्धि पूर्ण जानकारी पाएका छैनन् । यसले धेरैलाई सहयोग पुग्नेछ । तपाई र तपाईको कर्मका लागि पनि उपयोगी हुन सक्नेछ ।
व्यावसायिक बाख्रापालन गर्दा कुनै पनि सरकारी निकायहरु जस्तैः जिल्ला पशु सेवा कार्यालय, सहकारी कार्यालय वा मान्यताप्राप्त अन्य निकायबाट व्यावसायिक बाख्रापालन दर्ता गरेको अवस्थामा सहुलियत पाउन सकिन्छ ।
बुंगुर पालेको ठाउँमा बथानमा संक्रमक रोगको प्रसार तथा एक ठाउँको बथानबाट अर्को ठाउँको बथानमा रोग प्रसार न्युनगरी बंगुरपालन व्यवसायमा रोग प्रदत जोखीम न्युनीकरण गर्ने गरी गरिने व्यवस्थापकीय व्यवहारीक व्यवस्थापनको अर्को नाम हो बंगुरपालनका जैविक सुरक्षा । आफुले पालेको बंगुरको उपयुक्त जैविक सुरक्षा व्यवस्था गर्नु भनेको व्यवसायको आपेक्षा गरिएको आम्दानी प्राप्त हुनेमा ढुक्क हुनु पनि हो ।
बंगुर पालन गरेको ठाउँमा उचित जैविक सुरक्षाको व्यवस्था गर्नु भनेको बंगुरलाई लाग्न सक्ने स्थानीय स्तरमा स्थापित रोग तथा अन्यत्रबाट भित्रन सक्ने, माहामारी जन्य, सरुवा तथा संक्रमक रोगबाट बचाउन सुरक्षात्मक उपाय पनि मानिन्छ । बंगुरको खोर गोठमा कुनै नौलो अन्यत्रबाट सरी आएको रोग निर्मुल पार्न, रोकथाम गर्न, उपचार गर्न, खर्चिलो मात्र हुदैन बरु त्यस्ता रोगले अझ बंगुरपालन व्यवसायमा गम्भिर असर पार्न सक्छ ।
मुर्गियों में बीमारियां से बचाव और टीकाकरण :
मुर्गियों में कई तरह की बीमारियां पाई जाती हैं। जैसे पुलोराम, रानीखेत, हैजा, मैरेक्स, टाईफाइड और परजीविकृमी आदि रोग होते हैं। जिससे मुर्गीपालकों को हर साल भारी नुकसान उठाना पड़ता है। बिमारियों से बचाव के लिए समय -समय पर मुर्गियों का टीकाकरण बहुत ही जरुरी है ,कुछ बीमारियां की रोक-थाम केवल टीकाकरण से ही संभव है। मुर्गियों में बिमारियों से बचाव के लिए बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियमों ) का पालन करना बहुत ही जरुरी और महत्वपूर्ण है।
बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम) :
ग्रोवेल एग्रोवेट प्राइवेट लिमिटेड के विशेषज्ञों का मानना है कि यदि योजनाबद्ध तरीके से ब्रायलर मुर्गीपालन किया जाए तो कम खर्च में अधिक आय की जा सकती है। बस तकनीकी चीजों पर ध्यान देने की जरूरत है। वजह, कभी-कभी लापरवाही के कारण इस व्यवसाय से जुड़े लोगों को भारी क्षति उठानी पड़ती है। इसलिए मुर्गीपालन में ब्रायलर फार्म का आकार और बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम) पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए। मुर्गियां तभी मरती हैं जब उनके रखरखाव में लापरवाही बरती जाए।
ब्रायलर मुर्गीपालन में हमें कुछ तकनीकी चीजों पर ध्यान देना चाहिए। जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम का भी पालन होना चाहिए। एक शेड में हमेशा एक ही ब्रीड के चूजे रखने चाहिए। आल-इन-आल आउट पद्धति का पालन करें। शेड तथा बर्तनों की साफ-सफाई पर ध्यान दें। बाहरी व्यक्तियों का प्रवेश वर्जित रखना चाहिए। कुत्ता, चूहा, गिलहरी, देशी मुर्गी आदि को शेड में न घुसने दें। मरे हुए चूजे, वैक्सीन के खाली बोतल को जलाकर नष्ट कर दें, समय-समय पर शेड के बाहर विराक्लीन ( Viraclean ) का छिड़काव व टीकाकरण नियमों का पालन करें। समय पर सही दवा का प्रयोग करें। पीने के पानी में एक्वाक्योर (Aquacure) का प्रयोग करें।
मुर्गा मंडी की गाड़ी को फार्म से दूर खड़ा करें। मुर्गी के शेड में प्रतिदिन 23 घंटे प्रकाश की आवश्यकता होती है। एक घंटे अंधेरा रखा जाता है। इसके पीछे मंशा यह कि बिजली कटने की स्थिति में मुर्गियां स्ट्रेस की शिकार न हों।
दूध उत्पादन व्यवसाय या डेयरी फार्मिंग छेटे व बड़े स्तर दोनों पर सबसे ज्यादा विस्तार में फैला हुआ व्यवसाय है। दूध उत्पादन व्यवसाय व्यवसायिक या छोटे स्तर पर दूध उत्पादन किसानों की कुल दूध उत्पादन में मदद करता है और उसकी आर्थिक वृद्धि को बढ़ाता है। इसमें कोई संदेह नहीं है कि, भारत में कई वर्षों से डेयरी व्यवसाय या दूध उत्पादन ने आर्थिक वृद्धि में सबसे महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई है। कुल दूध उत्पादन ने हमारे देश की अर्थव्यवस्था में बड़े स्तर पर भागीदारी की है और बहुत से गरीब किसानों को अपना व्यवसाय स्थापित करने में सहयोग किया है। यदि किसी के पास दूध उत्पादन का व्यवसाय स्थापित करने के लिए प्रारंभिक पूँजी है तो, इस (दूध उत्पादन) व्यवसाय को किसी भी क्षेत्रों में आसानी से स्थापित किया जा सकता है।
Pig is the only species of livestock from which major portion of the total investments made for establishing the farm can be earned back within 1½ – 2 years. Thus, the farmer is assured of getting over 60 per cent of profit margin from a marginal piggery unit. As a thumb rule, pigs have to put on more than 10 kg of body weight per month by consuming concentrate feed or agricultural byproducts or processed wastes from food industries. Though the white pigs have the western origin (temperate climate), they are better adapted to the Indian agro-climatic conditions. Nevertheless, the Large White Yorkshire breed is the widely accepted breed for pork (bacon, a cured meat from the back and side portions of the pig) production in the global scenario. Strategies have also been formulated to produce lean meat from synthetic strains of pigs through recent research approach, which would create better export opportunities. Hence, farmers without any doubt, can venture into farming this prolific species for their livelihood as well to contribute more to the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to which contribution from livestock sector is, now-a-days, on the increase (from 4 to 8%).
The objective of commercial fish farming is to produce fish for sale and
earn profits. Therefore, production should be planned from the onset to
target identified markets. This means one should:
1. have the required product (size and form) available when the
market wants it,
2. be able to produce adequate volumes to sustain targeted markets,
3. produce at a competitive price and profit.
When making a production and business plan for table fish, one should
endeavor to answer the following questions beforehand.
1. Where is the market? – its location, what category of people are
likely to buy the fish I produce, etc
2. What does the market want? – type of fish, how much, what size,
how frequently, fresh or processed, etc.
3. What resources do I have? – number of pond(s), size of pond(s),
water for production (quantity, quality, flow rates), feeds, labour,
seed, etc.
4. From where and when should I source my seed and feed?
5. What is the quality of feed I intend to use? This is important
because it limits possible FCRs, water quality and carrying capacity.
6. How much feed and seed shall I require?
7. What technology do I have at my disposal and which would be the
best to adopt?
8. How frequently do I need to harvest for the market? (complete
harvest/partial harvests)
9. How do I get my fish to the market?
10. What returns can I expect from the above?
Few countries in the world have no sheep. They are found in tropical countries and in the arctic, in hot climates and in the cold, on the desert and in humid areas.
There are over 800 breeds of sheep in the world, in a variety of sizes, shapes, types and colours.
Sheep were domesticated long before the dawn of recorded history. Wool fibres have been found in remains of primitive villages of Switzerland that date back an estimated 20000 years. Egyptian sculpture dating 4000-5000 B.C. portrays the importance of this species to people. Much mention is
made in the Bible of flocks, shepherds, sacrificial lambs, and garments made of wool.
The Roman empire pried sheep, anointed them with special oils, and combed their fleece to produce fine quality fibres that were woven into fabric for the togas of the elite.
Perhaps the first ruminants domesticated by man along with goats, sheep are a very valuable and important asset to mankind.
Sheep is a important livestock species . They contribute greatly to the agrarian economy, especially in the arid/semi-arid and mountainous areas where crop and /or dairy farming are not economical. They play an important role in the livelihood of a large percentage of small and marginal
farmers and landless labourers engaged in sheep rearing. A number of rural-based industries use wool and sheep skins as raw material. Sheep manure is an important source of soil fertility, especially in southern states.
The aim of this booklet is to assist you in more effective use of pasture to achieve high sheep production. Essential for this are the ability to assess the amount of pasture in a paddock and knowledge of animal feeding needs.
This chapter discusses how to assess the amount of pasture in a paddock in relation to animal performance and seasonal pasture needs of sheep. The next chapter deals with setting up grazing rotations and feed budgeting.
Feed planning enables you to objectively match pasture supply and animal feed demands on your whole farm during the year. Some of you may feel daunted by this structured approach, but maximising production and achieving livestock target weights, including supply contracts, means more sophisticated pasture feeding.
In this book following points has been defined and described.
Define anatomy
Discuss the different fields of anatomy
Identify and describe the integumentary system
Identify and describe the musculoskeletal system
Identify and describe the cardiovascular system
Identify and describe the lymphatic system
Identify and describe the digestive system
Identify and describe the respiratory system
Identify and describe the endocrine system
Identify and describe the urinary system
Identify and describe the reproductive system
Identify and describe the nervous system and special senses
The term anatomy refers to the science that deals with the form and structure of animals. Physiology deals with the study of functions of the body or any of its parts. A thorough knowledge of the structure of an animal imparts a lot of information about the various functions it is capable of performing.
The course may be used as an introductory course to further studies; to assist you in recognising the normal, in order to determine the abnormal; to help you understand how to diagnose disease or determine if an animal has sustained an injury; to help understand the physical capabilities or limitations of particular species; to understand what happens in the nutrition and growth processes; and to assist you to get better performance from your animals.
Bio-Security plan is a set of practices designed to prevent the entry and spread of infectious diseases into and from a poultry farm.
Biosecurity requires the adoption of a set of attitudes and behaviours by people, to reduce risk in all activities involving poultry production and marketing.
Selection or formulation of appropriate diets for companion
and aviary birds is based on wild feeding ecology, digestive anatomy and physiology, and nutritional requirements of related species. Research indicates that requirements of some key nutrients for psittacines vary from those of poultry. Apart from vitamin E, there is no evidence to suggest that vitamin and trace mineral requirements for psittacines are greater than those recommended for poultry.54 While there are substantial differences between production species and companion
bird species, dietary requirements of poultry remain the
standard for estimating the needs of companion birds.
Individual nutrient classes will be discussed with particular
focus on recent research into the nutritional requirements of companion birds.
The decision to own and care for exotic birds is a decision which cannot be taken lightly. A lot of responsibility has to be accepted because a pet bird is not a low-maintenance pet. All pet birds require at least some specialized care.Very few “beginners” know the answers to the questions that arise concerning the management, breeding, rearing,disease prevention, and proper nutrition of birds. The “survivors” in aviculture have successful aviaries because their teacher has been experience, coupled with trial-anderror. Sometimes this teacher is expensive and can result in thousands of dollars of investment being lost. “Beginners” can increase their general knowledge in aviculture and
come up with answers to their questions by reading articles,
traveling to pet bird shows, attending lectures and talking
with people who have experience with pet birds.
Relatively speaking, most dogs today eat a more nutritional diet than their owners do.Though a carnivore, the dog utilises a wide variety of foodstuffs efficiently and can meet nutritional requirements from a diversity of diets.
Dogs regulate their food intake to meet energy requirements proper diets incorporate exact daily nutritional requirements into the amount of food consumed each day for energy.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
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The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
2. Minerals Deficiencies in Poultry Causes ,Effect & Treatment.
CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IMBALANCES
A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus in the diet of young growing birds results in abnormal
bone development even when the diet contains adequate vitamin D3 . A deficiency of either calcium
or phosphorus results in lack of normal skeletal calcification. Rickets is seen mainly in growing birds,
while calcium deficiency in laying hens results in reduced shell quality and osteoporosis. This
depletion of bone structure causes a disorder that is commonly referred to as “cage layer fatigue.”
When calcium is mobilized from bone to overcome a dietary deficiency, the cortical bone erodes and
is unable to support the weight of the hen.
RICKET
Rickets most commonly occurs in young meat birds; the main characteristic is inadequate bone
mineralization. Calcium deficiency at the cellular level is the main cause, although feeding a diet
deficient or imbalanced in calcium, phosphorus, or vitamin D3 can also induce this problem. Young
broilers and poults can exhibit lameness at around 10–14 days of age. Their bones are rubbery and
the rib cage is flattened and beaded at the attachment of the vertebrae. Rachitic birds exhibit a
disorganized cartilage matrix, with an irregular vascular penetration. Rickets is not caused by a
failure in the initiation of bone mineralization, but rather by the early maturation of this process.
There is often an enlargement of the ends of the long bones, with a widening of the epiphyseal
plate. A determination of whether rickets is due to deficiencies of calcium, phosphorus, or vitamin
D3, or to an excess of calcium (which induces a phosphorus deficiency) may require analysis of blood
phosphorus levels and parathyroid activity.
In most field cases of rickets, a deficiency of vitamin D3 is suspected. This can be due to simple
dietary deficiency, inadequate potency of the D3 supplement, or other factors that reduce the
absorption of vitamin D3. Rickets can best be prevented by providing adequate levels and potency of
vitamin D3 supplements, and by ensuring that the diet is formulated to provide optimal utilization of
fat-soluble compounds. Diets must also provide a correct balance of calcium to available
phosphorus. For this reason, ingredients that are notoriously variable in their content of these
minerals should be used with caution. In recent years, the use of 25(OH)D3 has become very popular
as a partial replacement for vitamin D3, with reports of greatly reduced incidence of rickets,
especially in poults. This metabolite is similar to that naturally produced in the liver of birds in the
first step of conversion of vitamin D3 to 1,25(OH)2 D3, the active form of the vitamin. The commercial
form of 25(OH)D3 is therefore especially useful if normal liver metabolism is compromised in any
way, such as occurs with mycotoxins or other “natural” toxins in the feed.
TIBIAL DYSCHONDROPLASIA (OSTEOCHONDROSIS)
Tibial dyschondroplasia is characterized by an abnormal cartilage mass in the proximal head of the
tibiotarsus. It has been seen in all fast-growing meat birds but is most common in broiler chickens.
3. Signs can occur early, but more usually are seen at 21–35 days of age. Birds are reluctant to move
and when forced to walk, do so with a swaying motion or stiff gait. Tibial dyschondroplasia results
from disruption of the normal metaphyseal blood supply in the proximal tibiotarsal growth plate,
where the disruption in nutrient supply means that the normal process of ossification does not
occur. The abnormal cartilage is composed of severely degenerated cells, with cytoplasm and nuclei
appearing shrunken.
The exact cause of tibial dyschondroplasia is unknown. Incidence can quickly be altered through
genetic selection, suggesting that it is affected by a major sex-linked recessive gene. Dietary
electrolyte imbalances, and particularly high levels of chloride, seem to be a major contributor in
many field outbreaks. More tibial dyschondroplasia is also seen when the level of dietary calcium is
low relative to that of available phosphorus. Treatment involves dietary adjustment of the
calcium:phosphorus ratio and achieving a dietary electrolyte balance of ~250 mEq/kg. Dietary
changes rarely result in complete recovery. Tibial dyschondroplasia can be prevented by tempering
growth rate; however, programs of light or feed restriction must be considered in relation to
economic consequences of reduced growth rate.
CAGE LAYER FATIGUE.
High-producing laying hens maintained in cages sometimes show paralysis during and just after the
period of peak egg production due to a fracture of the vertebrae that subsequently affects the spinal
cord. The fracture is caused by an impaired calcium flux related to the high output of calcium in the
eggshell. Because medullary bone reserves become depleted, the bird uses cortical bone as a source
of calcium for the eggshell. The condition is rarely seen in floor-housed birds, suggesting that
reduced activity within the cage is a predisposing factor. Affected birds are invariably found on their
sides in the back of the cage. At the time of initial paralysis, birds appear healthy and often have a
shelled egg in the oviduct and an active ovary. Death occurs from starvation or dehydration because
the birds cannot reach feed or water.
Affected birds will recover if moved to the floor. A high incidence of cage layer fatigue can be
prevented by ensuring the normal weight-for-age of pullets at sexual maturity and by giving pullets a
high calcium diet (minimum 4.0% Ca) for at least 7 days prior to first oviposition. Older caged layers
are also susceptible to bone breakage during removal from the cage and transport to processing. It is
not known whether cage layer fatigue and bone breakage are related. However, bone strength
cannot practically be improved without adverse consequences to other economically important
traits such as eggshell quality.
Diets must provide adequate quantities of calcium and phosphorus to prevent deficiencies.
However, feeding diets that contain >2.5% calcium during the growing period produces a high
incidence of nephrosis, visceral gout, calcium urate deposits in the ureters, and sometimes high
mortality, especially in the presence of infectious bronchitis virus. Eggshell strength and bone
strength can both be improved by feeding ~50% of the dietary calcium supplement in the form of
coarse limestone, with the remaining half as fine particle limestone. Offering the coarse supplement
permits the birds to satisfy their requirements when they need it most, or allows the coarse material
to be retained in the gizzard where the calcium can be absorbed continuously. A readily assimilable
4. calcium and/or calcium phosphate supplement is effective if started very soon after paralysis due to
calcium deficiency develops.
MANGANESE DEFICIENCY
A deficiency of manganese in the diet of immature chickens and turkeys is one of the causes of
perosis and of thin-shelled eggs and poor hatchability in mature birds (also see Nutrition and
Management: Poultry: Calcium and Phosphorus Imbalances). It can also cause chondrodystrophy.
The most dramatic effect of manganese deficiency syndrome is perosis, characterized by
enlargement and malformation of the tibiometatarsal joint, twisting and bending of the distal end of
the tibia and the proximal end of the tarsometatarsus, thickening and shortening of the leg bones,
and slippage of the gastrocnemius tendon from its chondyles. Elevated intakes of calcium and/or
phosphorus will aggravate the condition due to reduced absorption of magnesium by precipitated
calcium phosphate in the intestinal tract. In laying hens, reduced egg production, markedly reduced
hatchability, and eggshell thinning are often noted.
A manganese-deficient breeder diet can result in chondrodystrophy in chick embryos. This condition
is characterized by shortened, thickened legs and shortened wings. Other signs can include a parrot
beak brought about by a disproportionate shortening of the lower mandible, globular contour of the
head due to anterior bulging of the skull, edema usually occurring just above the atlas joint of the
neck and extending posteriorly, and protruding of the abdomen due to unassimilated yolk. Growth is
also reduced and development of down and feathers is retarded. A manganese-deficient chick has a
characteristic star-gazing posture, because the otoliths of the inner ear are defective or absent.
Deformities cannot be corrected by feeding more manganese. Effects of manganese deficiency on
egg production are fully corrected by feeding a diet containing 30–40 mg of Mn/kg, provided the
diet does not contain excess calcium and/or phosphorus.
IRON AND COPPER DEFICIENCIES
Deficiencies of both iron and copper can lead to anemia. Iron deficiency causes a severe anemia with
a reduction in PCV. In color-feathered strains, there is also loss of pigmentation in the feathers. The
birds' requirements for RBC synthesis take precedence over metabolism of feather pigments,
although if a fortified diet is introduced, all subsequent feather growth is normal. Iron may be
needed not only for the red feather pigments, which are known to contain iron, but also to function
in an enzyme system involved in the pigmentation process. Ochratoxin at 4–8 μg/g diet also causes
an iron deficiency characterized by hypochromic microcytic anemia. Aflatoxin also reduces iron
absorption.
Young chicks become lame in 2–4 wk when fed a copper-deficient diet. Bones are fragile and easily
broken, epiphyseal cartilage becomes thickened, and vascular penetration of the thickened cartilage
is markedly reduced. These bone lesions resemble the changes noted in birds with a vitamin A
deficiency. Copper-deficient chickens may also display ataxia and spastic paralysis.
5. Copper deficiency in birds, and especially in turkeys, can lead to rupture of the aorta. The
biochemical lesion in the copper-deficient aorta is likely related to failure to synthesize desmosine,
the cross-link precursor of elastin. The lysine content of copper-deficient elastin is 3 times that seen
in control birds, suggesting failure to incorporate lysine into the desmosine molecule. In field cases
of naturally occurring aortic rupture, many birds have <10 ppm Cu in the liver, compared to 15–30
ppm normally seen in birds of comparable age. High levels of sulfate, molybdenum, and ascorbic
acid can reduce liver copper levels. A high incidence of aortic rupture has been seen in turkeys fed 4-
nitrophenylarsionic acid. The problem can be resolved by feeding higher levels of copper, suggesting
that products such as 4-nitro may physically complex with copper.
IODINE DEFICIENCY
Iodine deficiency results in a decreased output of thyroxine from the thyroid gland, which in turn
stimulates the anterior pituitary to produce and release increased amounts of thyroid stimulating
hormone (TSH). This increased production of TSH results in subsequent enlargement of the thyroid
gland, usually termed goiter. The enlarged gland results from hypertrophy and hyperplasia of the
thyroid follicles, which increases the secretory surface of the follicles.
Lack of thyroid activity or inhibition of the thyroid by administration of thiouracil or thiourea causes
hens to cease laying and become obese. It also results in the growth of abnormally long, lacy
feathers. Administration of thyroxine or iodinated casein reverses the effects on egg production,
with eggshell quality returning to normal. The iodine content of an egg is markedly influenced by the
hen's intake of iodine. Eggs from a breeder fed an iodine-deficient diet will exhibit reduced
hatchability and delayed yolk sac absorption. Rapeseed meal and, to a lesser extent, canola meal
contain goitrogens that cause thyroid enlargement in young birds. Iodine deficiency in poultry can be
avoided by supplementing the feed with as little as 0.5 mg of iodine/kg.
MAGNESIUM DEFICIENCY
Natural feed ingredients are rich in magnesium, thus deficiency is rare and magnesium is rarely
added to diets. Newly hatched chicks fed a diet devoid of magnesium live only a few days. They grow
slowly, are lethargic, and often pant and gasp. When disturbed, they exhibit brief convulsions and
become comatose, which is sometimes temporary, but often fatal. Mortality is quite high on diets
only marginally deficient in magnesium, even though growth of survivors may approach that of
control birds.
A magnesium deficiency in the diet of laying hens results in a rapid decline in egg production, blood
hypomagnesemia, and a marked withdrawal of magnesium from bones. Egg size, shell weight, and
the magnesium content of yolk and shell are decreased. Increasing the dietary calcium of laying hens
accentuates these effects. Magnesium seems to play a central role in eggshell formation, although it
is not clear whether there is a structural need or whether magnesium simply gets deposited as a
cofactor along with calcium.
Requirements for most classes of chicken seem to be ~500–600 ppm Mg, a level that is usually
achieved with contributions by natural feed ingredients.
6. POTASSIUM, SODIUM, AND CHLORIDE DEFICIENCY
While requirements for potassium, sodium, and chloride have been clearly defined, it is also
important to maintain a balance of electrolytes in the body. Often termed electrolyte balance or
acid-base balance, the effects of deficiency of any one element are often a consequence of
alteration to this important balance as it affects osmoregulation.
SIMPLE DIFICIENCY
A deficiency of chloride causes ataxia with classic signs of nervousness, often induced by sudden
noise or fright. The main sign of hypokalemia is an overall muscle weakness characterized by weak
extremities, poor intestinal tone with intestinal distention, cardiac weakness, and weakness and
ultimately failure of the respiratory muscles. Hypokalemia is apt to occur during severe stress.
Plasma protein is elevated, causing the kidney, under the influence of adrenocortical hormone, to
discharge potassium into the urine. During adaptation to the stress, blood flow to the muscle
gradually improves and the muscle begins uptake of potassium. As liver glycogen is restored,
potassium returns to the liver.
Birds that are fed a diet low in protein and potassium or that are starving grow slowly but do not
show a potassium deficiency. Potassium derived from metabolized tissue protein replaces that lost
in the urine. The ratio of potassium to nitrogen in urine is relatively constant and is the same as that
found in muscle. Thus, tissue nitrogen and potassium are released together from catabolized tissue.
A deficiency of sodium leads to a lowering of osmotic pressure and a change in acid-base balance in
the body. Cardiac output and blood pressure decrease, hematocrit increases, elasticity of
subcutaneous tissues decreases, and adrenal function is impaired. This leads to an increase in blood
uric acid levels, which can result in shock and death. A less severe sodium deficiency in chicks can
result in retarded growth, soft bones, corneal keratinization, impaired food utilization, and a
decrease in plasma volume. In layers, reduced egg production, poor growth, and cannibalism may be
noted. A number of diseases can result in sodium depletion from the body (eg, GI losses from
diarrhea or urinary losses from renal or adrenal damage).
ELECTROLYTE IMBALANCE
Electrolyte balance is described by the formula of Na + K – Cl expressed as mEq/kg of diet. An overall
dietary balance of 250–300 mEq/kg is generally optimal for normal physiologic function. The
buffering systems in the body ensure the maintenance of near normal physiologic pH, preventing
electrolyte imbalance. The primary role of electrolytes is in maintenance of body water and ionic
balance. Thus, requirements for elements such as sodium, potassium, and chlorine cannot be
considered individually because it is the overall balance that is important. Electrolyte balance, also
referred to as acid-base balance, is affected by 3 factors: the balance and proportion of these
electrolytes in the diet, endogenous acid production, and the rate of renal clearance.
In most situations, the body attempts to maintain the balance between cations and anions in the
body such that physiologic pH is maintained. If there is a shift toward acid or base conditions,
metabolic processes change to return the body to a normal pH. Actual electrolyte imbalances are
7. rare because regulatory mechanisms must sustain optimal cellular pH and osmolarity. Electrolyte
balance can therefore more correctly be described as the changes that occur in the body to achieve
normal pH. In extreme situations, such modifications in regulatory mechanisms seem to adversely
affect other physiologic systems, and they produce or accentuate potentially debilitating conditions.
Electrolyte imbalance causes a number of metabolic disorders in birds, most notably tibial
dyschondroplasia and respiratory alkalosis in layers. Tibial dyschondroplasia in young broiler
chickens can be affected by the electrolyte balance of the diet. The unusual development of the
cartilage plug at the growth plate of the tibia can be induced by a number of factors, although its
incidence can be greatly increased by metabolic acidosis induced by feeding products such as NH4Cl.
Tibial dyschondroplasia seems to occur more frequently when the diet contains an excess of sodium
relative to potassium, along with very high chloride levels.
Overall electrolyte balance is always important, but is most critical when chloride or sulfur levels are
high. With low dietary chloride levels, there is often little response to the manipulation of electrolyte
balance; however, when dietary chloride levels are high, it is critical to make adjustments to the
dietary cations to maintain overall balance. Alternatively, chloride levels can be reduced, although
chickens have requirements of ~0.12–0.15% of the diet, and deficiency signs will develop with
dietary levels <0.12%. Therefore, care must be taken to meet the minimum chloride requirements
when, for example, NaHCO3 replaces NaCl in a diet.
SELENIUM DEFICIENCY
A deficiency of selenium in growing chickens causes exudative diathesis. Early signs (unthriftiness,
ruffled feathers) usually occur at 5–11 wk of age. The edema results in weeping of the skin, which is
often seen on the inner surface of the thighs and wings. The birds bruise easily, and large scabs often
form on old bruises. In laying hens, such tissue damage is unusual, but egg production, hatchability,
and feed conversion are adversely affected.
The metabolism of selenium is closely linked to that of vitamin E, and signs of deficiency can
sometimes be treated with either the mineral or the vitamin. Vitamin E can spare selenium in its role
as an antioxidant, and so some selenium-responsive conditions can also be treated by supplemental
vitamin E. In most countries, there are limits to the quantity of selenium that can be added to a diet;
the upper limit is usually 0.3 ppm.
The commonly used forms are sodium selenite and, more recently, organic selenium chelates. Feeds
grown on high-selenium soils may be used in poultry rations and are good sources of selenium. Fish
meal and dried brewer's yeast are also rich in selenium.
ZINC DEFICIENCY
Zinc requirements and signs of deficiency are influenced by dietary ingredients. In semipurified diets
it is difficult to show a response to levels much above 25–30 mg/kg diet, whereas in practical corn-
soy diets, requirement values are increased to 60–80 mg/kg. Such variable zinc needs likely relate to
phytic acid content of the diet, because this ligand is a potent zinc chelator. If phytase enzyme is
used in diets, presumably the need for supplemental zinc will be reduced.
8. In young chicks, signs of zinc deficiency include retarded growth, shortening and thickening of leg
bones and enlargement of the hock joint, scaling of the skin (especially on the feet), very poor
feathering, loss of appetite, and in severe cases, mortality. While zinc deficiency can reduce egg
production in aging hens, the most striking effects are seen in developing embryos. Chicks hatched
from zinc-deficient hens are weak and cannot stand, eat, or drink. They have accelerated respiratory
rates and labored breathing. If the chicks are disturbed, the signs are aggravated and the chicks
often die. Retarded feathering and frizzled feathers are also found. However, the major defect is
grossly impaired skeletal development. Zinc-deficient embryos show micromelia, curvature of the
spine, and shortened, fused thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. Toes often are missing and, in extreme
cases, the embryos have no lower skeleton or limbs. Some embryos are rumpless, and occasionally
the eyes are absent or not developed.
PROTEIN,AMINO ACID & ENERGY DEFICIENCY.
The optimal level of balanced protein intake for growing chicks is ~18–23% of the diet; for growing
poults and galinaceous upland game birds, ~26–30%; and for growing ducklings and goslings, ~20–
22%. If the protein and component amino acid content of the diet is below these levels, birds tend to
grow more slowly. Even when a diet contains the recommended quantities of protein, satisfactory
growth also requires sufficient quantities and proper balance of all the essential amino acids.
Few specific signs are associated with a deficiency of the various amino acids, except for a peculiar
cup-shaped appearance of the feathers in chickens with arginine deficiency and loss of pigment in
some of the wing feathers in bronze turkeys with lysine deficiency. All deficiencies of essential amino
acids result in retarded growth or reduced egg size or egg production. If a diet is deficient in protein
or certain amino acids, the bird may consume more feed in an attempt to resolve the deficiency.
Consequently there will be inferior feed efficiency and the birds are invariably fatter as a
consequence of overconsuming energy.
A deficiency of energy can only occur if the diet is so low in energy concentration that the bird
physically cannot eat a sufficient quantity of feed to normalize energy intake. All birds have an
amazing ability to consume energy to requirement regardless of dietary energy concentration,
assuming that they can physically eat enough feed in extreme situations. With a deficiency of
energy, the bird will grow slowly or stop ovulating. As sources of energy, protein and amino acids
will be deaminated and any lipids will undergo β-oxidation. The latter condition can lead to ketosis,
which more commonly occurs in mammals.