This document discusses many factors that can affect feed intake in poultry, including management and environmental factors, feed and water factors, and physical body factors of the birds. Management factors like flock size, stocking rate, temperature, and lighting can all impact feed intake and efficiency. Feed-related factors such as the physical form of feed, feed flavor, and anti-nutritional factors also influence intake. Physical characteristics of the birds' bodies, including gastrointestinal tract size, taste buds, genes and hormones, and feather cover are correlated with feed consumption levels as well. The document provides examples and studies demonstrating the effects of these various factors.
Instructions with detailed photographs to learn a step by step process for scoring body condition in dairy cows.
Animations in the file can be viewed by downloading this presentation.
Care and Management of Pregnant Cows and EwesPervaiz Dar
Pregnancy is central to care and management of animals. Healthy Pregnant Animals means a Healthy and Prosperous Farm. Pregnant animals need special care for example they need suitable ration to reduce the possibility of diseases like milk fever and ketosis at the time of calving and also to ensure adequate milk production. There are other aspects which need to be cared about pregnant animals which we discuss in this presentation.
This manual is a brief guide to preventing, diagnosing and controlling poultry diseases. All major poultry diseases are discussed in detail. The description of each disease includes information about its cause, the susceptibility of poultry species, ways the disease is transmitted, clinical signs and lesions, how the disease is diagnosed, and ways to treat it. There are colour photos to aid in disease identification. There is additional information on the nature and cause of disease and on sanitation practices, and a glossary of common terms. The book is fully indexed so that diseases can be found by both their formal and common names
The golden rule of management is to have one age and one breed per site to ensure the "all-in, all-out" principle is followed at all times.
The choice of the site for the farm, including the layout of the houses, must prioritise the elimination of all possible sources of contamination. Biosecurity protection is reinforced by hygiene controls.
A changing room should be made available at the entrance of the site. It must be used by everybody entering the farm (incorporating both a shower and a change of clothes).
When the old flock is removed and before the arrival of the new flock, all houses and equipment must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected according to strict procedures and protocols. This should be followed by a rest period of at least 10 days.
Between each flock, cleaning and disinfection of the houses, their annexes,surroundings and access ways are essential to ensure the optimal health conditions required for the incoming flock to maximise its profitability.
The main feedstuffs fed to cattle include: grass, hay, grain, silage and total mixed ration. There are in fact, many types of feeds that can be fed to cattle, for example, crumbles, meals, coarse mix and pellets made from raw material such as corn, wheat, soybean. In this article, Elena Forbes of Azeus Machinery takes a closer look at the processes involved in creating a good quality pellet. With the global demand for cattle feed ever increasing, the need to produce high quality and nutritionally balanced feed has become an essential issue in the feed market.
Impact of laying hen nutrition on egg quality. Nys, Y. & Bouvarel, I. Presentation at the DSM customer event: Exploring the benefits of feed carotenoids for egg quality, Village Neuf, 2013.
The objective of a defined feeding management program is to supply a range of balanced diets that satisfy the nutrient requirements at all stages of development & that optimize efficiency and profitability without compromising bird welfare or the environment.
As work with the broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results. Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.To get the full potential out of broiler chickens it is important that the target weight at seven days
of age should be reached. As work with the Cobb 500 broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results.
Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.Several different parameters can be used to determine the quality of the chick at an early age such as live weight, growth, crop fill, body temperature, livability and mortality. Comparable parameter needs to be
objective, easy to perform, highly repeatable and inexpensive. Measuring live weight at day seven is a well-established and accepted way of assessing pre-placement management, brooding and chick quality.
The seven-day weight has significant impact on most important parameters such as performance, carcass and body composition. There is generally a peak in mortality at day three to four, most likely due to the absorption of the yolk sac in the intestine of chicks; if feed and water intake is not optimum, nonstarter/ cull chicks will add to the mortality that occurs a few days later.
The liver is the central laboratory of a chicken’s body. It is essential that this organ is kept in an excellent condition in order to maintain a healthy bird. Understanding the metabolic function and causes of disruptions in liver functions helps us to provide the birds with the right feed and health treatment.
When we cut open the body of a chicken, the first organ that is most likely revealed is the liver. The message is clear. Nature wants us to examine the liver carefully before
proceeding to the other organs.The liver contains great functional reserve capacity, which is very important in domestic animals subjected to high production requirements. This organ adapts easily to different conditions by increasing the intensity of its functions.
Particularly in broilers, the liver has to cope with many challenges, including
high energy level feed, the addition of chemotherapeutics, coccidiostats
and others, whose desired metabolites must be maintained in equilibrium by hepatic homeostasis.Incidental treatments with highly hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic antibiotics
or sulfonamides pose serious risks and cause situations of difficult prognosis during a 40-45 day period in which the body acquires satisfactory muscular mass. What is the function of the liver and what might be the cause of malfunctioning?
Instructions with detailed photographs to learn a step by step process for scoring body condition in dairy cows.
Animations in the file can be viewed by downloading this presentation.
Care and Management of Pregnant Cows and EwesPervaiz Dar
Pregnancy is central to care and management of animals. Healthy Pregnant Animals means a Healthy and Prosperous Farm. Pregnant animals need special care for example they need suitable ration to reduce the possibility of diseases like milk fever and ketosis at the time of calving and also to ensure adequate milk production. There are other aspects which need to be cared about pregnant animals which we discuss in this presentation.
This manual is a brief guide to preventing, diagnosing and controlling poultry diseases. All major poultry diseases are discussed in detail. The description of each disease includes information about its cause, the susceptibility of poultry species, ways the disease is transmitted, clinical signs and lesions, how the disease is diagnosed, and ways to treat it. There are colour photos to aid in disease identification. There is additional information on the nature and cause of disease and on sanitation practices, and a glossary of common terms. The book is fully indexed so that diseases can be found by both their formal and common names
The golden rule of management is to have one age and one breed per site to ensure the "all-in, all-out" principle is followed at all times.
The choice of the site for the farm, including the layout of the houses, must prioritise the elimination of all possible sources of contamination. Biosecurity protection is reinforced by hygiene controls.
A changing room should be made available at the entrance of the site. It must be used by everybody entering the farm (incorporating both a shower and a change of clothes).
When the old flock is removed and before the arrival of the new flock, all houses and equipment must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected according to strict procedures and protocols. This should be followed by a rest period of at least 10 days.
Between each flock, cleaning and disinfection of the houses, their annexes,surroundings and access ways are essential to ensure the optimal health conditions required for the incoming flock to maximise its profitability.
The main feedstuffs fed to cattle include: grass, hay, grain, silage and total mixed ration. There are in fact, many types of feeds that can be fed to cattle, for example, crumbles, meals, coarse mix and pellets made from raw material such as corn, wheat, soybean. In this article, Elena Forbes of Azeus Machinery takes a closer look at the processes involved in creating a good quality pellet. With the global demand for cattle feed ever increasing, the need to produce high quality and nutritionally balanced feed has become an essential issue in the feed market.
Impact of laying hen nutrition on egg quality. Nys, Y. & Bouvarel, I. Presentation at the DSM customer event: Exploring the benefits of feed carotenoids for egg quality, Village Neuf, 2013.
The objective of a defined feeding management program is to supply a range of balanced diets that satisfy the nutrient requirements at all stages of development & that optimize efficiency and profitability without compromising bird welfare or the environment.
As work with the broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results. Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.To get the full potential out of broiler chickens it is important that the target weight at seven days
of age should be reached. As work with the Cobb 500 broiler has shown, brooding is a vital period for good overall results.
Achieving good seven-day live weight will improve performance parameters such as final live weight and feed conversion as well as maintain a low overall mortality.Several different parameters can be used to determine the quality of the chick at an early age such as live weight, growth, crop fill, body temperature, livability and mortality. Comparable parameter needs to be
objective, easy to perform, highly repeatable and inexpensive. Measuring live weight at day seven is a well-established and accepted way of assessing pre-placement management, brooding and chick quality.
The seven-day weight has significant impact on most important parameters such as performance, carcass and body composition. There is generally a peak in mortality at day three to four, most likely due to the absorption of the yolk sac in the intestine of chicks; if feed and water intake is not optimum, nonstarter/ cull chicks will add to the mortality that occurs a few days later.
The liver is the central laboratory of a chicken’s body. It is essential that this organ is kept in an excellent condition in order to maintain a healthy bird. Understanding the metabolic function and causes of disruptions in liver functions helps us to provide the birds with the right feed and health treatment.
When we cut open the body of a chicken, the first organ that is most likely revealed is the liver. The message is clear. Nature wants us to examine the liver carefully before
proceeding to the other organs.The liver contains great functional reserve capacity, which is very important in domestic animals subjected to high production requirements. This organ adapts easily to different conditions by increasing the intensity of its functions.
Particularly in broilers, the liver has to cope with many challenges, including
high energy level feed, the addition of chemotherapeutics, coccidiostats
and others, whose desired metabolites must be maintained in equilibrium by hepatic homeostasis.Incidental treatments with highly hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic antibiotics
or sulfonamides pose serious risks and cause situations of difficult prognosis during a 40-45 day period in which the body acquires satisfactory muscular mass. What is the function of the liver and what might be the cause of malfunctioning?
Minerals Deficiencies in Poultry Causes ,Effect & Treatment.A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus in the diet of young growing birds results in abnormal bone development even when the diet contains adequate vitamin D3 . A deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus results in lack of normal skeletal calcification. Rickets is seen mainly in growing birds, while calcium deficiency in laying hens results in reduced shell quality and osteoporosis. This depletion of bone structure causes a disorder that is commonly referred to as “cage layer fatigue.” When calcium is mobilized from bone to overcome a dietary deficiency, the cortical bone erodes and is unable to support the weight of the hen. A deficiency of manganese in the diet of immature chickens and turkeys is one of the causes of perosis and of thin-shelled eggs and poor hatchability in mature birds (also see Nutrition and Management: Poultry: Calcium and Phosphorus Imbalances). It can also cause chondrodystrophy.
The most dramatic effect of manganese deficiency syndrome is perosis, characterized by enlargement and malformation of the tibiometatarsal joint, twisting and bending of the distal end of the tibia and the proximal end of the tarsometatarsus, thickening and shortening of the leg bones, and slippage of the gastrocnemius tendon from its chondyles. Elevated intakes of calcium and/or phosphorus will aggravate the condition due to reduced absorption of magnesium by precipitated calcium phosphate in the intestinal tract.
In laying hens, reduced egg production, markedly reduced hatchability, and eggshell thinning are often noted. Deficiencies of both iron and copper can lead to anemia. Iron deficiency causes a severe anemia with a reduction in PCV. In color-feathered strains, there is also loss of pigmentation in the feathers. The birds' requirements for RBC synthesis take precedence over metabolism of feather pigments, although if a fortified diet is introduced, all subsequent feather growth is normal. Iron may be needed not only for the red feather pigments, which are known to contain iron, but also to function in an enzyme system involved in the pigmentation process.
Proper vaccination is an essential part of a good poultry management program and for the success of any poultry operation. Effective preventive procedures such as immunisation protect hundreds of millions of poultry worldwide from many contagious and deadly diseases and have resulted in improved flock health and production efficiency.
Immunization cannot be a substitute for poor bio-security and sanitation. Thus, vaccination programs may not totally protect birds that are under stress or in unhygienic conditions. The primary objective of immunizing any poultry flock is to reduce the level of clinical disease and to promote optimal performance. Certain vaccines may also have an impact on human health (i.e. Salmonella vaccines).
For breeders – we also want to accomplish some additional goals:
A. Protect the bird (as a pullet and hen) against specific diseases.
B. Protect the progeny of the hen against vertical transmission of disease.
C. Provide passive immunity to progeny.
There are four main types of disease affecting poultry: metabolic and nutritional diseases; infectious diseases; parasitic diseases; and behavioural diseases.
Metabolic and nutritional diseases
These are conditions caused by a disturbance of normal metabolic functions either through a genetic defect, inadequate or inappropriate nutrition or impaired nutrient utilisation. These include Fatty Liver Syndrome, Perosis (or slipped tendon), Rickets and Cage Layer Fatigue.
Infectious diseases
An infectious disease is any disease caused by invasion of a host by a pathogen which subsequently grows and multiplies in the body. Infectious diseases are often contagious, which means they can be spread directly or indirectly from one living thing to another. These include Avian Encephalomyelitis, Avian Influenza, Avian Tuberculosis, Chicken Anaemia Virus Infection (or CAV), Chlamydiosis, Egg Drop Syndrome (or EDS), Fowl Cholera (or Pasteurellosis), Fowl Pox, Infectious Bronchitis, Infectious Bursal Disease (or Gumboro), Infectious Coryza, Infectious Laryngotracheitis, Lymphoid Leukosis, Marek’s Disease, Mycoplasmosis, Necrotic Enteritis, Newcastle Disease and Salmonellosis.
Parasitic diseases
Parasitic diseases are infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure. A parasite is an organism that lives in or on, and takes its nourishment from, another organism. A parasite cannot live independently. These include Coccidiosis, Cryptosporidiosis, Histomoniasis, Lice and Mites, Parasitic Worms (or Helminths), Toxoplasmosis and Trichomoniasis.
Behavioural diseases
Abnormal behavioural patterns can lead to injury or ill health of the abnormally behaving bird and/or its companions. These include Cannibalism (or aggressive pecking).
Poultry production can be divided into four sectors:
1. industrial and integrated, 2.commercial high bio-security, 3. commercial low bio-security, 4. village, and family or backyard poultry. The focus here is largely on sectors 3 and 4 but there may be some overlap.
‘Family poultry’ as defined by the International Network for Family Poultry Development, covers sectors 3 and 4 which encompass small - scale poultry production.
There are numerous poultry handbooks which cover sectors 2 and 3, but this hand book has attempted, in two manuals, to cover mainly sector 3 while not ignoring the great importance of bio-security particularly in the face of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1). It is envisaged that, given time, some producers, now in sector 3 may move into sector 2.
The two manuals are pitched at two different levels.
The Trainer’s (instructor) manual assumes that the trainer has qualifications and/or experience in a branch of agricultural science but not necessarily in poultry production. Some of the material included is beyond that necessary to give an initial course in poultry production but may be useful as the farmer progresses from sector 3 to sector 2. The trainee’s manual has numerous illustrations and is aimed at a lower level than for the trainer.
The farmer may be interested in starting a poultry enterprise is already producing poultry in a small - scale commercial or semi-commercial (opportunistic) situation but would like to make poultry farming more permanent. The course will allow the farmer to increase his/her knowledge and skills and to become aware of a number of important issues (e.g. managing the environment, disease surveillance) of his/her enterprise.
In order to minimise repetition, there is some material in the trainee’s manual that is not in the trainer’s manual. Trainers should familiarise themselves thoroughly with both manuals.
The third manual is for the millions of families, worldwide, in low – income,
developing countries who keep backyard poultry, mainly unmanaged, with few inputs, but nevertheless are of great importance by providing, some security, income and high – quality protein. It is hoped that this manual will make families aware of the possibility of improving output with a minimum of input.
Much of the information has been taken from a range of sources as well as the author’s own experience of working in several developing countries over 25 years.
Ideally, there should be a small-scale demonstration unit or a poultry farm available so that the trainees can see, first hand, and better understand the main points in these manuals and observe how commercial poultry production should be practised.
An overview of the internal organs of the female chicken is shown in figures and number of different systems are represented and they will be discussed individually.Contents:
Digestive system
Respiratory system
Skeletal system
Muscle system
Reproductive system - female
Reproductive system - male
Circulatory system
Nervous system
Excretory system
Immune system
An overview of the internal organs of the female chicken is shown in Figure 3.1. A
number of different systems are represented and they will be discussed individually.
A good poultry health management is an important component of poultry production. Infectious disease causing agents will spread through a flock very quickly because of the high stocking densities of commercially housed poultry.
For poultry health management to be effective a primary aim must be to prevent the onset of disease or parasites, to recognize at an early stage the presence of disease or parasites, and to treat all flocks that are diseased or infested with parasites as soon as possible and before they develop into a serious condition or spread to other flocks. To be able to do this it is necessary to know how to recognize that the birds are diseased, the action required for preventing or minimising disease and how to monitor for signs that the prevention program is working.
The purpose of the Handbook of Poultry Diseases is to acquaint veterinarians and poultry health professionals with current information on the diagnosis and prevention of poultry disease in commercial broiler and egg production flocks in emerging and established industries. Productivity and profitability are enhanced by application of sound principles of bio security, vaccination, and management. Improving efficiency increases the availability of eggs and poultry meat to supply the protein needs of populations in countries with expanding demand.
During the past two decades, primary breeders of broiler, egg and laying strains have eliminated vertically-transmitted diseases from their elite and great-grandparent generations. Unfortunately, infection of grandparent and parent flocks occurs in many developing countries resulting in dissemination of diseases including mycoplasmosis, salmonellosis and reoviral infection.
Improved bio security and an awareness of the need for appropriate vaccination programs, reduces the potential losses caused by both catastrophic and erosive infections on commercial-scale farms, village cooperatives and in integrated operations.
To get more free guides and literature and books please visit www.growelagrovet.com
In this article it has been described :
Identify the threats to our poultry and how disease agents
might enter a poultry farm
Identify the costs of diseases and their prevention
Define the three principles of biosecurity:
Segregation & Traffic control
Cleaning
Disinfection
Identify biosecurity risks present in a poultry farm
Broiler poultry farming is a lucrative business. Generally highly meat productive birds or poultry breeds are called broiler poultry. But broiler chicken is a special species of poultry, which is a great secret. Only four countries of the world knows about this secret and they supply and maintain all the demand of broiler chickens. Broilers are like other common poultry birds. But this broiler is made in a scientific way for producing more meat in a short time. Basically, broilers are only for meat production.
This color atlas of poultry diseases .This is very useful guide for poultry farmers & poultry practicing professionals.The atlas contains colour photographs demonstrating the overall pathology of birds. The book includes more than 50 diseases from avian infectious pathology and a similar number from non-infectious pathology.There are both classic and well known diseases and new and little known diseases. The book is designed for veterinarians, veterinary students, poultry farmers and poultry specialists.
To get more free guides and literature and books please visit www.growelagrovet.com
All of the above poultry-keeping methods are used in the developing world,but the majority of the enterprises are backyard poultry and farm flock production. The poultry and egg sectors are highly fragmented. Most of the production is carried out by a large number of farmers, each with a very small flock. The greater part of produce is sold in markets close to the farms.
Day-old chicks are usually obtained from local hatcheries licensed by international hybrid breeding companies. Farmers or cooperatives of farmers may choose between varieties of chickens for egg production and meat production.
The small chicks can be either naturally or artificially brooded. If artificially brooded, small chicks must be placed in a separate house from laying chickens and it is necessary to protect the chicks from predators, diseases and catching colds.
This stage of brooding lasts for eight weeks. In the first four weeks of life, small chicks need to be housed in a brooding box. Some typical types of brooders are shown below and on the previous page.
Typically, a layer’s production cycle lasts just over a year (52-56 weeks). During the production cycle many factors influence egg production; therefore, the cycle must be managed effectively and efficiently in order to provide maximum output and profitability.
Poultry Business Guide ,Those Who are Interested to Start Their Own.Advice for those thinking of starting their own chicken flock for meat or eggs from Dr Tom Tabler, Dr Dustan Clark, Jessica Wells, Dr Wei Zhai and Dr Haitham Yakout with the Mississippi State University Extension Service.
Maintaining a small flock of poultry can be a rewarding experience and is an excellent
venture for a small or part-time farmer. People keep backyard flocks for many reasons –
for meat or eggs, as a hobby for adults or children, or perhaps for show and exhibition.
Backyard poultry can supplement family food supplies, and small producers may choose to sell their products to several niche markets. These can include brown eggs, free-range meat and eggs, live birds for the increasing number of ethnic markets, and organic meat and eggs. Whatever the reason, if you are considering managing a backyard flock,
you must be aware that raising poultry requires time, labour and money.
Birds need care seven days a week, including weekends and holidays. Before you buy
any birds, be sure you are willing and able to give that care. Also, do your homework,
starting with research and planning.
Broiler Farming Management Guide is designed to help Aviagen’s customers achieve optimum performance from their birds. While not intended to provide definitive information on every aspect of management, this manual does draw attention to important issues that if overlooked or inadequately addressed may depress flock performance. The objective of this manual is to provide management techniques that help growers achieve good overall bird performance from day one through to processing while promoting bird health and welfare.
Aviagen applies a balanced approach to genetic progress, concentrating on commercial traits such as growth rate, feed conversion ratio, livability and meat yield, while improving bird welfare in areas such as leg health, cardiovascular fitness and robustness.
Achieving the genetic potential of the birds depends on three key factors:
• Management to provide birds with their required environment.
• A dietary regimen that offers nutrients in the appropriate profile.
• Effective biosecurity and disease control programs.
These three sectors, environment, nutrition and health, are interdependent. A shortfall in anyone will bring negative consequences to the others and if any one of these elements is sub-optimal, broiler performance will suffer.In reality, the guidance of a manual such as this cannot wholly protect against performance variations that may occur for a wide variety of reasons. While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy and relevance of the information presented, Aviagen accepts no liability for the consequences of using this information for the management of chickens. Information presented in this manual combines data derived from internal research.
Farm hygiene and biosecurity practices are implemented at both breeder and broiler farms to reduce the risk of disease agents moving on to farms from outside sources (eg wild bird populations or from other farms), the movement of disease agents between sheds on the same farm, carry over of disease agents from one batch to the next in the shed environment, and carry over of disease agents from breeding flocks to their progeny via the egg. Farmers take a range of precautions to prevent entry of diseases onto broiler farms.
Genetic progress over the last 10 years has steadily improved broiler economic performance. One component of this is growth potential which has increased each year by 60 grams at six weeks of age. In order to achieve a standard processing weight (of e.g. 2kg), the age at which a flock of broilers are killed has fallen by, on average, 1 day per year over this time. Birds of 2kg that were killed at 49 days in 1988 are now killed at 39 days.
The consequence of this change is that the brooding period now takes up a much bigger proportion of the whole growing period and is more important in the final performance of the flock. Over the same 10 year period, the equipment used in brooding and starting chickens has changed, and some of these changes have significant consequences for the well-being of the day-old chick.
Our customers have become more focussed on the predictability of performance and uniformity of the product at all stages, especially in the processing plant. Many features of broiler management can affect uniformity and, in some cases, small changes in management technique can make a previously unimportant factor critical (e.g. the need for more feeding space once feed intake control is initiated) This Ross Tech is aimed at encouraging better general management and especially brooding management for broiler flocks, to improve performance and uniformity
Zoo-technical performances of weaner rabbits fed Nutryzyme® supplemented dietsAI Publications
The study assessed the zoo-technical performances of weaner rabbits fed Nutrizyme supplement diets. This study aimed at determining the zoo-technical performances of the weaner rabbits fed Nutrizyme supplement diets while we specifically determined the zoo-technical performances, the apparent nutrient digestibility as well as the hematological and serum Biochemical of weaner rabbits fed Nutrizyme supplement diets. Eighteen rabbits were allotted into three dietary treatments with each having three replicates in a completely randomized design format. Each replicate (unit) housed two rabbits. The Nutrizyme powder was incorporated in the diets at 0, 125, and 250 ppm respectively. The parameters appraised include average daily feed intake, feed efficiency, average final weight and the heamatological and serum profiles. All data generated were subjected to analysis of variance using statistical packages for social sciences (SSPM) packages. There were significant (p<0.05) differences in the total weight, average daily weight, average daily feed intake as well as the feed efficiency. Rabbits fed diets 3 (250mg/kg Nutrizyme inclusion) had the best result in terms of the total weight (1068g), average daily (0.25), respectively. There were significant (p<0.05) differences in the digestibility of nutrients among the rabbits as indicated in the results. The crude protein digestibility improved with increased enzyme inclusion in the diets. Rabbits fed the control diet had the least nutrient digestibility. The heamoglobin concentrations, white blood cells and serum metabolites were not significantly influenced (p<0.05) by dietary treatments. The packed cell volumes (PCV) of 36.03 to 41.06% were within the normal values of 35 to 45%, also red blood cell counts and the mean cell heamoglobin concentration (MCHC), were within the range reported for rabbits. Enzyme was found to be good nutrient metabolite that could enhance the growth of weaned rabbits. The already established quantity (125g/ton of feed) should be maintain as either increase or decrease in the internationally recommended quantity did not significantly (p<0.05) affect the zoo-technical performances nutrient digestibility, heamatological and serum metabolites of weaner rabbits.
The advantages of feed pellets in pig farming are well documented so pig breeders are inclined to adopt pellets into feed and are interested in improving feed pellet quality. Research shows that there is a proportional relationship between factors which determine pig feed pellet quality. Feed formulation accounts for 40 percent, raw material granularity 20 percent, modulating 20 percent, ring die specification 15 percent, cooling 5 percent and other factors 5 percent.
Effects of Probiotics Feeding Technology on Weight Gain of Indigenous Chicken...iosrjce
IOSR Journal of Agriculture and Veterinary Science (IOSR-JAVS) is a double blind peer reviewed International Journal edited by the International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR). The journal provides a common forum where all aspects of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences are presented. The journal invites original papers, review articles, technical reports and short communications containing new insight into any aspect Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences that are not published or not being considered for publication elsewhere.
Factors influencing the nutrient requirements in poultrySunil Yadav
This Presentation will help you to understand the various factors that are responsible for the nutrient requirement of poultry. While formulating feed for any classes of poultry we should consider all these factors for a better outcome from the bird.
Importance of Vitamins and Minerals for Dairy Cattle. The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Dairy Planner magazine, March – 2021 edition.
How To Do Poultry Farming in Summer? The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Poultry Square magazine, May – 2021 edition.
What is diarrhea in cattle and what causes it?
• Diarrhea (purging, scours) can have many causes.
• Possible causes include bacterial and viral infections, certain chemicals, intestinal parasites, poor diet, overfeeding on milk or lush grass, poisonous plants and other toxins, food allergies and even stress.
• In diarrhea, the intestine fails to adequately absorb fluids, and/or secretion into the intestine is increased. Loss of fluids through diarrhea produces dehydration and the loss of certain body salts.
• It causes a change in body tissue composition and severe depression in the animal.
• Death from scours is usually the result of dehydration and loss of body salts rather than invasion of an infectious agent.
• The correct determination of the cause of diarrhea is important in order to take effective preventive measures.
Domestication of the European rabbit probably occurred in monasteries during the Middle Ages. By the middle of the 17th century, rabbits were commonly raised in England and continental Europe. Oryctolagus cuniculus, one of the more successful mammals of the world, is both prolific and adaptable.
Most of the fancy breeds were developed within the past 100 years, and only since the early 1900s have rabbits been raised domestically in the United
States. The first commercial colonies were started in southern California. Meat rationing during World War II gave the infant industry a push. Today, approximately 200,000 people are engaged in some phase of the rabbit business
in the United States, and animals are produced in every state. Meat processors serving major cities market more than 10 million pounds of rabbit meat annually.
कुखरा पालन (ब्रोइलर) पूर्ण रोजगारीका साथ मनग्य आम्दानी गर्न सकिने भरपर्दो पेशा हो । यो रोजगारी भएका तर समय बचत गर्न सक्ने व्यक्तिका लागि पनि उपयुक्त हुन्छ । न्यून आय भएका अर्धबेरोजगार व्यक्तिका लागि थप आयआर्जन गर्न यो पेशा सहायक सिद्ध हुन सक्छ । यो पेशा थोरै जग्गा तथा कम लगानीमै सञ्चालन गर्न सकिन्छ । यसको उत्पादन ५–६ हप्तामै भित्र्याउन सकिन्छ र वर्षमा ६–७ पटकसम्म कुखुरा बेच्न सकिन्छ । यो व्यवसाय गर्न धेरै ठूलो तालिमको आवश्यकता समेत पर्दैन ।
नेपालमा यो व्यवसाय सञ्चालनका लागि आवश्यक सामग्री सहज उपलब्ध छन् । साथै, सहज बजार पहुँचले उत्पादनपछिको विक्रीवितरणमा समेत समस्या छैन । यो व्यवसाय सञ्चालन गर्दा प्रारम्भमा सानो आकार अर्थात् १ सयदेखि २ सयबाट शुरू गर्नु उपयुक्त हुन्छ । र, बिस्तारै कुखुरा पालनको अनुभव बटुली व्यावसायिक रूपमा यो पेशा सञ्चालन गर्न सजिलो हुन्छ ।
नेपालमा बाख्रापालनबाट राम्रो फाइदा लिन सकिन्छ । चाहना राख्ने धेरैले बाख्रापालन सम्कन्धि पूर्ण जानकारी पाएका छैनन् । यसले धेरैलाई सहयोग पुग्नेछ । तपाई र तपाईको कर्मका लागि पनि उपयोगी हुन सक्नेछ ।
व्यावसायिक बाख्रापालन गर्दा कुनै पनि सरकारी निकायहरु जस्तैः जिल्ला पशु सेवा कार्यालय, सहकारी कार्यालय वा मान्यताप्राप्त अन्य निकायबाट व्यावसायिक बाख्रापालन दर्ता गरेको अवस्थामा सहुलियत पाउन सकिन्छ ।
बुंगुर पालेको ठाउँमा बथानमा संक्रमक रोगको प्रसार तथा एक ठाउँको बथानबाट अर्को ठाउँको बथानमा रोग प्रसार न्युनगरी बंगुरपालन व्यवसायमा रोग प्रदत जोखीम न्युनीकरण गर्ने गरी गरिने व्यवस्थापकीय व्यवहारीक व्यवस्थापनको अर्को नाम हो बंगुरपालनका जैविक सुरक्षा । आफुले पालेको बंगुरको उपयुक्त जैविक सुरक्षा व्यवस्था गर्नु भनेको व्यवसायको आपेक्षा गरिएको आम्दानी प्राप्त हुनेमा ढुक्क हुनु पनि हो ।
बंगुर पालन गरेको ठाउँमा उचित जैविक सुरक्षाको व्यवस्था गर्नु भनेको बंगुरलाई लाग्न सक्ने स्थानीय स्तरमा स्थापित रोग तथा अन्यत्रबाट भित्रन सक्ने, माहामारी जन्य, सरुवा तथा संक्रमक रोगबाट बचाउन सुरक्षात्मक उपाय पनि मानिन्छ । बंगुरको खोर गोठमा कुनै नौलो अन्यत्रबाट सरी आएको रोग निर्मुल पार्न, रोकथाम गर्न, उपचार गर्न, खर्चिलो मात्र हुदैन बरु त्यस्ता रोगले अझ बंगुरपालन व्यवसायमा गम्भिर असर पार्न सक्छ ।
मुर्गियों में बीमारियां से बचाव और टीकाकरण :
मुर्गियों में कई तरह की बीमारियां पाई जाती हैं। जैसे पुलोराम, रानीखेत, हैजा, मैरेक्स, टाईफाइड और परजीविकृमी आदि रोग होते हैं। जिससे मुर्गीपालकों को हर साल भारी नुकसान उठाना पड़ता है। बिमारियों से बचाव के लिए समय -समय पर मुर्गियों का टीकाकरण बहुत ही जरुरी है ,कुछ बीमारियां की रोक-थाम केवल टीकाकरण से ही संभव है। मुर्गियों में बिमारियों से बचाव के लिए बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियमों ) का पालन करना बहुत ही जरुरी और महत्वपूर्ण है।
बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम) :
ग्रोवेल एग्रोवेट प्राइवेट लिमिटेड के विशेषज्ञों का मानना है कि यदि योजनाबद्ध तरीके से ब्रायलर मुर्गीपालन किया जाए तो कम खर्च में अधिक आय की जा सकती है। बस तकनीकी चीजों पर ध्यान देने की जरूरत है। वजह, कभी-कभी लापरवाही के कारण इस व्यवसाय से जुड़े लोगों को भारी क्षति उठानी पड़ती है। इसलिए मुर्गीपालन में ब्रायलर फार्म का आकार और बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम) पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए। मुर्गियां तभी मरती हैं जब उनके रखरखाव में लापरवाही बरती जाए।
ब्रायलर मुर्गीपालन में हमें कुछ तकनीकी चीजों पर ध्यान देना चाहिए। जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम का भी पालन होना चाहिए। एक शेड में हमेशा एक ही ब्रीड के चूजे रखने चाहिए। आल-इन-आल आउट पद्धति का पालन करें। शेड तथा बर्तनों की साफ-सफाई पर ध्यान दें। बाहरी व्यक्तियों का प्रवेश वर्जित रखना चाहिए। कुत्ता, चूहा, गिलहरी, देशी मुर्गी आदि को शेड में न घुसने दें। मरे हुए चूजे, वैक्सीन के खाली बोतल को जलाकर नष्ट कर दें, समय-समय पर शेड के बाहर विराक्लीन ( Viraclean ) का छिड़काव व टीकाकरण नियमों का पालन करें। समय पर सही दवा का प्रयोग करें। पीने के पानी में एक्वाक्योर (Aquacure) का प्रयोग करें।
मुर्गा मंडी की गाड़ी को फार्म से दूर खड़ा करें। मुर्गी के शेड में प्रतिदिन 23 घंटे प्रकाश की आवश्यकता होती है। एक घंटे अंधेरा रखा जाता है। इसके पीछे मंशा यह कि बिजली कटने की स्थिति में मुर्गियां स्ट्रेस की शिकार न हों।
दूध उत्पादन व्यवसाय या डेयरी फार्मिंग छेटे व बड़े स्तर दोनों पर सबसे ज्यादा विस्तार में फैला हुआ व्यवसाय है। दूध उत्पादन व्यवसाय व्यवसायिक या छोटे स्तर पर दूध उत्पादन किसानों की कुल दूध उत्पादन में मदद करता है और उसकी आर्थिक वृद्धि को बढ़ाता है। इसमें कोई संदेह नहीं है कि, भारत में कई वर्षों से डेयरी व्यवसाय या दूध उत्पादन ने आर्थिक वृद्धि में सबसे महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई है। कुल दूध उत्पादन ने हमारे देश की अर्थव्यवस्था में बड़े स्तर पर भागीदारी की है और बहुत से गरीब किसानों को अपना व्यवसाय स्थापित करने में सहयोग किया है। यदि किसी के पास दूध उत्पादन का व्यवसाय स्थापित करने के लिए प्रारंभिक पूँजी है तो, इस (दूध उत्पादन) व्यवसाय को किसी भी क्षेत्रों में आसानी से स्थापित किया जा सकता है।
Pig is the only species of livestock from which major portion of the total investments made for establishing the farm can be earned back within 1½ – 2 years. Thus, the farmer is assured of getting over 60 per cent of profit margin from a marginal piggery unit. As a thumb rule, pigs have to put on more than 10 kg of body weight per month by consuming concentrate feed or agricultural byproducts or processed wastes from food industries. Though the white pigs have the western origin (temperate climate), they are better adapted to the Indian agro-climatic conditions. Nevertheless, the Large White Yorkshire breed is the widely accepted breed for pork (bacon, a cured meat from the back and side portions of the pig) production in the global scenario. Strategies have also been formulated to produce lean meat from synthetic strains of pigs through recent research approach, which would create better export opportunities. Hence, farmers without any doubt, can venture into farming this prolific species for their livelihood as well to contribute more to the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to which contribution from livestock sector is, now-a-days, on the increase (from 4 to 8%).
The objective of commercial fish farming is to produce fish for sale and
earn profits. Therefore, production should be planned from the onset to
target identified markets. This means one should:
1. have the required product (size and form) available when the
market wants it,
2. be able to produce adequate volumes to sustain targeted markets,
3. produce at a competitive price and profit.
When making a production and business plan for table fish, one should
endeavor to answer the following questions beforehand.
1. Where is the market? – its location, what category of people are
likely to buy the fish I produce, etc
2. What does the market want? – type of fish, how much, what size,
how frequently, fresh or processed, etc.
3. What resources do I have? – number of pond(s), size of pond(s),
water for production (quantity, quality, flow rates), feeds, labour,
seed, etc.
4. From where and when should I source my seed and feed?
5. What is the quality of feed I intend to use? This is important
because it limits possible FCRs, water quality and carrying capacity.
6. How much feed and seed shall I require?
7. What technology do I have at my disposal and which would be the
best to adopt?
8. How frequently do I need to harvest for the market? (complete
harvest/partial harvests)
9. How do I get my fish to the market?
10. What returns can I expect from the above?
Few countries in the world have no sheep. They are found in tropical countries and in the arctic, in hot climates and in the cold, on the desert and in humid areas.
There are over 800 breeds of sheep in the world, in a variety of sizes, shapes, types and colours.
Sheep were domesticated long before the dawn of recorded history. Wool fibres have been found in remains of primitive villages of Switzerland that date back an estimated 20000 years. Egyptian sculpture dating 4000-5000 B.C. portrays the importance of this species to people. Much mention is
made in the Bible of flocks, shepherds, sacrificial lambs, and garments made of wool.
The Roman empire pried sheep, anointed them with special oils, and combed their fleece to produce fine quality fibres that were woven into fabric for the togas of the elite.
Perhaps the first ruminants domesticated by man along with goats, sheep are a very valuable and important asset to mankind.
Sheep is a important livestock species . They contribute greatly to the agrarian economy, especially in the arid/semi-arid and mountainous areas where crop and /or dairy farming are not economical. They play an important role in the livelihood of a large percentage of small and marginal
farmers and landless labourers engaged in sheep rearing. A number of rural-based industries use wool and sheep skins as raw material. Sheep manure is an important source of soil fertility, especially in southern states.
The aim of this booklet is to assist you in more effective use of pasture to achieve high sheep production. Essential for this are the ability to assess the amount of pasture in a paddock and knowledge of animal feeding needs.
This chapter discusses how to assess the amount of pasture in a paddock in relation to animal performance and seasonal pasture needs of sheep. The next chapter deals with setting up grazing rotations and feed budgeting.
Feed planning enables you to objectively match pasture supply and animal feed demands on your whole farm during the year. Some of you may feel daunted by this structured approach, but maximising production and achieving livestock target weights, including supply contracts, means more sophisticated pasture feeding.
In this book following points has been defined and described.
Define anatomy
Discuss the different fields of anatomy
Identify and describe the integumentary system
Identify and describe the musculoskeletal system
Identify and describe the cardiovascular system
Identify and describe the lymphatic system
Identify and describe the digestive system
Identify and describe the respiratory system
Identify and describe the endocrine system
Identify and describe the urinary system
Identify and describe the reproductive system
Identify and describe the nervous system and special senses
The term anatomy refers to the science that deals with the form and structure of animals. Physiology deals with the study of functions of the body or any of its parts. A thorough knowledge of the structure of an animal imparts a lot of information about the various functions it is capable of performing.
The course may be used as an introductory course to further studies; to assist you in recognising the normal, in order to determine the abnormal; to help you understand how to diagnose disease or determine if an animal has sustained an injury; to help understand the physical capabilities or limitations of particular species; to understand what happens in the nutrition and growth processes; and to assist you to get better performance from your animals.
Bio-Security plan is a set of practices designed to prevent the entry and spread of infectious diseases into and from a poultry farm.
Biosecurity requires the adoption of a set of attitudes and behaviours by people, to reduce risk in all activities involving poultry production and marketing.
Selection or formulation of appropriate diets for companion
and aviary birds is based on wild feeding ecology, digestive anatomy and physiology, and nutritional requirements of related species. Research indicates that requirements of some key nutrients for psittacines vary from those of poultry. Apart from vitamin E, there is no evidence to suggest that vitamin and trace mineral requirements for psittacines are greater than those recommended for poultry.54 While there are substantial differences between production species and companion
bird species, dietary requirements of poultry remain the
standard for estimating the needs of companion birds.
Individual nutrient classes will be discussed with particular
focus on recent research into the nutritional requirements of companion birds.
The decision to own and care for exotic birds is a decision which cannot be taken lightly. A lot of responsibility has to be accepted because a pet bird is not a low-maintenance pet. All pet birds require at least some specialized care.Very few “beginners” know the answers to the questions that arise concerning the management, breeding, rearing,disease prevention, and proper nutrition of birds. The “survivors” in aviculture have successful aviaries because their teacher has been experience, coupled with trial-anderror. Sometimes this teacher is expensive and can result in thousands of dollars of investment being lost. “Beginners” can increase their general knowledge in aviculture and
come up with answers to their questions by reading articles,
traveling to pet bird shows, attending lectures and talking
with people who have experience with pet birds.
Relatively speaking, most dogs today eat a more nutritional diet than their owners do.Though a carnivore, the dog utilises a wide variety of foodstuffs efficiently and can meet nutritional requirements from a diversity of diets.
Dogs regulate their food intake to meet energy requirements proper diets incorporate exact daily nutritional requirements into the amount of food consumed each day for energy.
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2. There are many factors which affect feed intake of chickens and hence determine nutrient intake level and efficiency of poultry
production. Although the spectrum of these factors is very broad, here the focus will be made on management and environment,
feed and water, and physical factors.
Management and environment play an important role in controlling feed intake and efficiency. Poultry producers should, therefore, make use
of the current technology and recent research works aiming at optimising management practices and micro-environment for better feed
intake and utilisation.
Flock size - In studies on laying hens, feed consumed per bird was less in large than in small flocks for the overall production cycle. Feed
conversion for egg production also improved with size of flock . This was probably due to better management by owners of large flocks,
thereby avoiding unnecessary wastage of feed.
Stocking rate - Feed intake and efficiency in broiler chickens were adversely affected by high stocking rate (30-40 kg/m2) compared to
moderate stocking (24 kg/m2) even under conditions of sufficient feeder space. The effect of stocking rate and feed utilisation could be
attributed mainly to the restricted access to the feed, increased heat stress, increased ammonia level, and prevalence of pathologies. Much
of these effects could, however, be alleviated with proper ventilation and other management and feeding practices, as will be discussed later.
Temperature - High temperatures have the most striking effects on feed intake, particularly at the post-brooding stage. This relationship may
be described by the following equation: ME=1690-2.1T: where “ME” is the metabolisable energy and “T” is the ambient temperature.
The efficiency of feed utilisation for gain is also reduced under heat stress. It has been reported that body weight gain from 4-8 weeks of age
was 1,225 grams at 21ºC, and was reduced linearly to only 1,087 grams at 26ºC. Such a problem comes not so much from temporary
exposure to heat as from continuous exposure, as the chickens will have no opportunity to move to more comfortable temperatures. Heat
stress does not only affect feed intake and utilisation, but also has negative impacts on the carcass quality.
This is due primarily to the unfavourable partitioning of ME consumed, with the greater part of it being deposited as fat and the lesser part as
protein (Table 2).
Lighting - Recent studies have examined an alternate lighting system in which the birds are exposed to one hour of light followed by three
hours of darkness, with the cycle being repeated six times in a day. Shown in Table 3 are the results from broilers kept under the alternate or
continuous lighting patterns. Although feed intake was reduced under the alternate lighting system, the birds here had better feed efficiency
and greater body weights than the control group with continuous light. The improvement in performance was attributed to the birds resting
during the dark period, thus lowering maintenance energy requirement and allowing more feed energy to be used for growth. It is also
thought that feed is better utilised by birds after their digestive tracts are emptied during the periods of darkness.
The colour of lighting also affects feed utilisation and growth performance. Generally, birds prefer to consume feed under white light because
it helps them identify texture differences they cannot see under different colours. In some cases, however, poultry producers may be
prompted to use other light colours in order to alleviate a variety of production problems. Red light, for example, may be used for control of
cannibalism, because birds cannot see the blood stimulant under red light. In other cases, blue or green lights may be used to keep birds
calm by reducing hypothalamic gonadotropin production, and hence alleviate much of the losses caused by hyperactivity.
The feed intake response and growth performance of chickens reared under such light colours may not always be as good as with the white
light. Better results could, however, be obtained when interacting colours of light with other factors such as light intensity and feed colour. In
some studies, feed intake and growth performance were improved under blue or green lights provided at high- rather than low intensity. In
other studies, improvement was also obtained with red-dyed feed given under blue light, but no other combinations of light and feed colours
have yet been examined.
Noise - Chickens in a given farm may in some cases be exposed to noise stress generated either from external source (i.e. takeoff or
landing of aircrafts in neighbouring airports), or from internal sources (i.e. power generators, ventilation equipment, etc).
The noise level is often measured in decibels (dB), and the critical level at which chickens are considered “stressed” is thought to be 85 dB or
above, and the stress would be more drastic with prolonged time of exposure to noise. In this case, feed intake performance would be
reduced by about 15-25% due to changes in neural and endocrine functions which affect retention time and rate of passage of feed through
the GI tract, thereby affecting the ability of the bird to ingest new batches of feed.
Feed and water factors
3. From the time the chicks arrive on the farm they should have immediate access to clean, fresh feed and water, which are essential to
maximise the genetic potential and take advantage of the modern chick’s voracious appetite. The following are some key tips to ensure
adequate consumption and maintain high performance.
Physical form of feed - Pelleting feeds usually results in increased density and intake of the ration, and also improves growth and feed
efficiency. Shown in Table 4 are results of three experiments comparing performance of broiler chickens fed pelleted and ground rations.
These particular experiments were conducted on the same breed of chickens under similar management conditions. The differences in feed
conversion observed within the pelleting treatment could have been linked with differences in pellet quality. It has been estimated that 0.01 in
feed conversion is lost with each 10% increase in ‘fines’ in pelleted feeds. Although pellet quality may appear adequate immediately after
leaving the feed mill, pellet quality at the time the flock is consuming the feed in the house is what counts. Every effort should, therefore, be
directed toward improving the quality of pellets that arrive in the feed troughs for broilers.
Feed flavour - Certain natural feedstuffs are relatively unsuitable for chickens because they are not palatable. For example, chickens tend to
avoid diets high in barley, rye or buckwheat in comparison with similar diets containing yellow corn. They also tend to avoid diets containing
unusual ingredients such as single-cell proteins, fruit processing wastes, marine flora, etc. in comparison with respective diets providing the
basic nutrients from natural feed materials.
Even with natural feeds known to be highly palatable, there may still be spoilage factors that adversely affect palatability due to rancidity of
fats, moulding of sugars and putrefaction of proteins, particularly when the feed is used after a long storage period. Deterioration of these
important nutrients will produce flavours and odours that are not acceptable by the birds, representing a key factor in poor feed performance.
Flavour problems may also exist in freshly produced feeds. In many cases, it is impossible to produce high uniform palatability in different
feed batches without flavour aids. This is due to varying by-products, different soil and crop conditions, and to varying manufacturing
processes. The feed additives used in different batches may also contribute to the change of flavour. The fats, for example, may be provided
from inedible animal greases with various impurities and contaminative feed vapidity. Likewise, minerals and vitamins may be provided in
premixes having off-flavour carriers and bases, all of which factors are inductive to “taste shock” changes in feed intake.
The addition of feed flavours in such cases would help prevent the “starve-outs” in very young chicks, and help keep chickens “on feed” until
they gradually increase consumption of the feeds which they initially avoided. Also, the feed that is made more palatable through the addition
of flavours is more easily digested than a less palatable feed, and will thus have greater conversion efficiency.
Anti-nutritional factors -Some feed ingredients such as raw soybeans contain a number of unknown factors which inhibit pancreatic trypsin
activity and inhibit digestion of the dietary proteins. Therefore, chickens fed raw soybeans often exhibit low intake and reduced feed
efficiency. In one study, average feed intake by broiler chickens has been reduced from 2,955 to 2,400 grams, and feed efficiency from 1.97
to 2.45 when raw soybeans have been used as a sole source of protein in the diet in place of heated soybeans over the first six weeks of
age. As they grew older, the chickens feed intake and efficiency have been nearly equal to those fed the heated beans.
The effects of age on utilisation of raw soybeans by chickens could be explained by the fact that in older chickens there is a decreased
pancreatic weight in relation to the body weight, amounting to less than 0.3% of the total weight of the bird. The pancreatic activity in this
case and the related process of protein utilisation will be less prone to the effect of the trypsin inhibitor compared to the case of younger
chickens which have larger pancreases relative to their body weights. In this latter case, the amount of raw soybeans fed should be restricted
to a larger extent when attempting to achieve better feed intake and performance.
Feed wastage - Shown in Table 5 are factors that could be operating in a broiler house to increase the apparent feed consumption and so
lead to an incorrect picture of feed efficiency and flock performance. Although it is hardly possible that any grower today would have all
factors operating against him at any one time, it is surprising how many have several of them in operation on their farms. This problem is
strictly under the control of the producer and costs little or nothing to correct. However, it seems difficult to get the total feed wastage below
the figure of around 2% even under the best management conditions.
Water supply - Water intake is correlated with feed intake and thus any decrease in water consumption due to failure in the water supply or
lack of watering space would result in decreased consumption of feed to a varying extent, depending on the age of the chickens and the
degree of water restriction (Table 6).
Body Factors
A number of body factors have been shown to be closely correlated with feed intake (R2 value ranging from 0.7 to 0.9), as there are:
Volume of GI tract - Chickens having larger volume of GI tract relative to the total body mass during embryonic development consume a
volume of feed approaching the full capacity of their GI tract, while consuming only a small percentage of their total capacity when the
4. volume of GI tract is small. The villus surface area is also increased in the former case by about 20-fold, which in turn increases digestibility
and hence improve feed intake.
Taste buds - Despite the fewer taste buds present in chickens relative to the mammalian species, the response of these buds to feed
ingredients of low-palatability may vary among different lines, with a resulting differences in feed intake. This means that with the same
number of taste buds, some chickens may consume more feed than others because of low response of these buds to the low palatability of
feed. This aspect is genetically-medicated and could be used for control of feed intake through selection among chicken lines.
Genes and hormones - The increased amount of leptin, a gene product originally produced in the adipose tissues, helps regulate appetite
through its action at specific hypothalamic sites. Similar action has been noted with some thyroid hormones such as T3. The increased
amount of T3 circulating in the blood stream is often associated with increased intake, as evidenced by the low T3 level at fasting.
Feather cover - Some hens lose their feathers over large parts of their body due to feather pecking, poor beak trimming, abrasion, and/or
moulting. As a result, there is a decline in their natural heat insulation and increase in heat loss from the bird. This aspect is more
pronounced with poor feather cover on the neck and back, since these parts are more exposed to the environment compared to the breast or
the legs.
In this case, there is an increase in feed intake to compensate for the amount of feed energy lost as heat, coupled with low egg production
and poor feed efficiency, expressed as the amount of feed per dozen of eggs (Table 7). This is particularly true in cases where chickens are
exposed to temperatures below 20ºC for 50% of the time they are housed.
To avoid these problems, it is important to keep birds warm in winter and not to emphasise only on keeping them cool in summer. For this to
be valid, the heating cost should first be balanced out against the expected increase in feed because of the poor feather cover.