What is diarrhea in cattle and what causes it?
• Diarrhea (purging, scours) can have many causes.
• Possible causes include bacterial and viral infections, certain chemicals, intestinal parasites, poor diet, overfeeding on milk or lush grass, poisonous plants and other toxins, food allergies and even stress.
• In diarrhea, the intestine fails to adequately absorb fluids, and/or secretion into the intestine is increased. Loss of fluids through diarrhea produces dehydration and the loss of certain body salts.
• It causes a change in body tissue composition and severe depression in the animal.
• Death from scours is usually the result of dehydration and loss of body salts rather than invasion of an infectious agent.
• The correct determination of the cause of diarrhea is important in order to take effective preventive measures.
Whether your dog is a working companion, champion show animal, hunting partner, or just a best friend, the kindest and most responsible thing you can do for him is to provide proper health care.
Knowing about common dog diseases and being aware of appropriate prevention and treatment can better help you provide that care.
Many Diseases Can Be Prevented .Some of the most common and serious dog diseases have been made less common through vaccines: however, these diseases continue to threaten a dog that lacks proper immunization. Puppies many be vaccinated as early as 4-6 weeks depending on each situation and the veterinarian’s advice. Through mother’s milk, puppies receive disease fighting antibodies, which last 6-16 weeks. Vaccinations then take over.
Yearly boosters should be given throughout your dog’s life, including old age when your dog may become more susceptible to some diseases.
etiology, local names, definition, transmission, source of infection, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, treatment prevention and control
Babesiosis is the diseased state caused by the protozoal (single celled) parasites of the genus Babesia. Infection in a dog may occur by tick transmission, direct transmission via blood transfer from dog bites, blood transfusions, or transplacental transmission.
Whether your dog is a working companion, champion show animal, hunting partner, or just a best friend, the kindest and most responsible thing you can do for him is to provide proper health care.
Knowing about common dog diseases and being aware of appropriate prevention and treatment can better help you provide that care.
Many Diseases Can Be Prevented .Some of the most common and serious dog diseases have been made less common through vaccines: however, these diseases continue to threaten a dog that lacks proper immunization. Puppies many be vaccinated as early as 4-6 weeks depending on each situation and the veterinarian’s advice. Through mother’s milk, puppies receive disease fighting antibodies, which last 6-16 weeks. Vaccinations then take over.
Yearly boosters should be given throughout your dog’s life, including old age when your dog may become more susceptible to some diseases.
etiology, local names, definition, transmission, source of infection, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, treatment prevention and control
Babesiosis is the diseased state caused by the protozoal (single celled) parasites of the genus Babesia. Infection in a dog may occur by tick transmission, direct transmission via blood transfer from dog bites, blood transfusions, or transplacental transmission.
Cholera, typhoid fever and dysentery are some communicable diseases that are mainly caused due to ingestion of food which are contaminated with pathogenic micro-organisms.
Calf scours causes more financial losses to cow-calf producers than any health problem in their herds. Calf scours is not a single infection; it is a clinical signallied with several diseases characterized by diarrhea. Regardless of the cause, diarrhea prevents the absorption of fluids from the intestines; also, body fluids pass from the scouring calfs body into the intestines. A calf is about 70 percent water at birth.
The scouring calf loses fluids and rapidly dehydrates. In addition, dehydration is associated with loss of essential body chemicals (electrolytes)-sodium and potassium-and the buildup of acid. The scouring calf typically becomes dehydrated and suffers from electrolyte loss and acidosis. Infectious agents cause the prime damage to the intestine, but death from scours usually results from dehydration, acidosis, and loss of electrolytes. The identification of infectious agents which cause scours, is quiet essential for implementing effective preventive measures (Wenzel et al., 2009).
"Diarrhoea-This is characterized by 3 or more watery schools per day or having more stools than is normal for that person. Almost everybody has diarrhoea at some point in their lives. Diarrhoea may be a cause of concern because it may cause the more life threatening dehydration. Mindheal homeopathy can help in the treatment of diarrhoea."/>
Importance of Vitamins and Minerals for Dairy Cattle. The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Dairy Planner magazine, March – 2021 edition.
How To Do Poultry Farming in Summer? The article written by Mr. Rakesh Kumar, Marketing Director, Growel Agrovet Private Limited, has been published in Poultry Square magazine, May – 2021 edition.
Domestication of the European rabbit probably occurred in monasteries during the Middle Ages. By the middle of the 17th century, rabbits were commonly raised in England and continental Europe. Oryctolagus cuniculus, one of the more successful mammals of the world, is both prolific and adaptable.
Most of the fancy breeds were developed within the past 100 years, and only since the early 1900s have rabbits been raised domestically in the United
States. The first commercial colonies were started in southern California. Meat rationing during World War II gave the infant industry a push. Today, approximately 200,000 people are engaged in some phase of the rabbit business
in the United States, and animals are produced in every state. Meat processors serving major cities market more than 10 million pounds of rabbit meat annually.
कुखरा पालन (ब्रोइलर) पूर्ण रोजगारीका साथ मनग्य आम्दानी गर्न सकिने भरपर्दो पेशा हो । यो रोजगारी भएका तर समय बचत गर्न सक्ने व्यक्तिका लागि पनि उपयुक्त हुन्छ । न्यून आय भएका अर्धबेरोजगार व्यक्तिका लागि थप आयआर्जन गर्न यो पेशा सहायक सिद्ध हुन सक्छ । यो पेशा थोरै जग्गा तथा कम लगानीमै सञ्चालन गर्न सकिन्छ । यसको उत्पादन ५–६ हप्तामै भित्र्याउन सकिन्छ र वर्षमा ६–७ पटकसम्म कुखुरा बेच्न सकिन्छ । यो व्यवसाय गर्न धेरै ठूलो तालिमको आवश्यकता समेत पर्दैन ।
नेपालमा यो व्यवसाय सञ्चालनका लागि आवश्यक सामग्री सहज उपलब्ध छन् । साथै, सहज बजार पहुँचले उत्पादनपछिको विक्रीवितरणमा समेत समस्या छैन । यो व्यवसाय सञ्चालन गर्दा प्रारम्भमा सानो आकार अर्थात् १ सयदेखि २ सयबाट शुरू गर्नु उपयुक्त हुन्छ । र, बिस्तारै कुखुरा पालनको अनुभव बटुली व्यावसायिक रूपमा यो पेशा सञ्चालन गर्न सजिलो हुन्छ ।
नेपालमा बाख्रापालनबाट राम्रो फाइदा लिन सकिन्छ । चाहना राख्ने धेरैले बाख्रापालन सम्कन्धि पूर्ण जानकारी पाएका छैनन् । यसले धेरैलाई सहयोग पुग्नेछ । तपाई र तपाईको कर्मका लागि पनि उपयोगी हुन सक्नेछ ।
व्यावसायिक बाख्रापालन गर्दा कुनै पनि सरकारी निकायहरु जस्तैः जिल्ला पशु सेवा कार्यालय, सहकारी कार्यालय वा मान्यताप्राप्त अन्य निकायबाट व्यावसायिक बाख्रापालन दर्ता गरेको अवस्थामा सहुलियत पाउन सकिन्छ ।
बुंगुर पालेको ठाउँमा बथानमा संक्रमक रोगको प्रसार तथा एक ठाउँको बथानबाट अर्को ठाउँको बथानमा रोग प्रसार न्युनगरी बंगुरपालन व्यवसायमा रोग प्रदत जोखीम न्युनीकरण गर्ने गरी गरिने व्यवस्थापकीय व्यवहारीक व्यवस्थापनको अर्को नाम हो बंगुरपालनका जैविक सुरक्षा । आफुले पालेको बंगुरको उपयुक्त जैविक सुरक्षा व्यवस्था गर्नु भनेको व्यवसायको आपेक्षा गरिएको आम्दानी प्राप्त हुनेमा ढुक्क हुनु पनि हो ।
बंगुर पालन गरेको ठाउँमा उचित जैविक सुरक्षाको व्यवस्था गर्नु भनेको बंगुरलाई लाग्न सक्ने स्थानीय स्तरमा स्थापित रोग तथा अन्यत्रबाट भित्रन सक्ने, माहामारी जन्य, सरुवा तथा संक्रमक रोगबाट बचाउन सुरक्षात्मक उपाय पनि मानिन्छ । बंगुरको खोर गोठमा कुनै नौलो अन्यत्रबाट सरी आएको रोग निर्मुल पार्न, रोकथाम गर्न, उपचार गर्न, खर्चिलो मात्र हुदैन बरु त्यस्ता रोगले अझ बंगुरपालन व्यवसायमा गम्भिर असर पार्न सक्छ ।
मुर्गियों में बीमारियां से बचाव और टीकाकरण :
मुर्गियों में कई तरह की बीमारियां पाई जाती हैं। जैसे पुलोराम, रानीखेत, हैजा, मैरेक्स, टाईफाइड और परजीविकृमी आदि रोग होते हैं। जिससे मुर्गीपालकों को हर साल भारी नुकसान उठाना पड़ता है। बिमारियों से बचाव के लिए समय -समय पर मुर्गियों का टीकाकरण बहुत ही जरुरी है ,कुछ बीमारियां की रोक-थाम केवल टीकाकरण से ही संभव है। मुर्गियों में बिमारियों से बचाव के लिए बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियमों ) का पालन करना बहुत ही जरुरी और महत्वपूर्ण है।
बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम) :
ग्रोवेल एग्रोवेट प्राइवेट लिमिटेड के विशेषज्ञों का मानना है कि यदि योजनाबद्ध तरीके से ब्रायलर मुर्गीपालन किया जाए तो कम खर्च में अधिक आय की जा सकती है। बस तकनीकी चीजों पर ध्यान देने की जरूरत है। वजह, कभी-कभी लापरवाही के कारण इस व्यवसाय से जुड़े लोगों को भारी क्षति उठानी पड़ती है। इसलिए मुर्गीपालन में ब्रायलर फार्म का आकार और बायोसिक्योरिटी (जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम) पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए। मुर्गियां तभी मरती हैं जब उनके रखरखाव में लापरवाही बरती जाए।
ब्रायलर मुर्गीपालन में हमें कुछ तकनीकी चीजों पर ध्यान देना चाहिए। जैविक सुरक्षा के नियम का भी पालन होना चाहिए। एक शेड में हमेशा एक ही ब्रीड के चूजे रखने चाहिए। आल-इन-आल आउट पद्धति का पालन करें। शेड तथा बर्तनों की साफ-सफाई पर ध्यान दें। बाहरी व्यक्तियों का प्रवेश वर्जित रखना चाहिए। कुत्ता, चूहा, गिलहरी, देशी मुर्गी आदि को शेड में न घुसने दें। मरे हुए चूजे, वैक्सीन के खाली बोतल को जलाकर नष्ट कर दें, समय-समय पर शेड के बाहर विराक्लीन ( Viraclean ) का छिड़काव व टीकाकरण नियमों का पालन करें। समय पर सही दवा का प्रयोग करें। पीने के पानी में एक्वाक्योर (Aquacure) का प्रयोग करें।
मुर्गा मंडी की गाड़ी को फार्म से दूर खड़ा करें। मुर्गी के शेड में प्रतिदिन 23 घंटे प्रकाश की आवश्यकता होती है। एक घंटे अंधेरा रखा जाता है। इसके पीछे मंशा यह कि बिजली कटने की स्थिति में मुर्गियां स्ट्रेस की शिकार न हों।
दूध उत्पादन व्यवसाय या डेयरी फार्मिंग छेटे व बड़े स्तर दोनों पर सबसे ज्यादा विस्तार में फैला हुआ व्यवसाय है। दूध उत्पादन व्यवसाय व्यवसायिक या छोटे स्तर पर दूध उत्पादन किसानों की कुल दूध उत्पादन में मदद करता है और उसकी आर्थिक वृद्धि को बढ़ाता है। इसमें कोई संदेह नहीं है कि, भारत में कई वर्षों से डेयरी व्यवसाय या दूध उत्पादन ने आर्थिक वृद्धि में सबसे महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई है। कुल दूध उत्पादन ने हमारे देश की अर्थव्यवस्था में बड़े स्तर पर भागीदारी की है और बहुत से गरीब किसानों को अपना व्यवसाय स्थापित करने में सहयोग किया है। यदि किसी के पास दूध उत्पादन का व्यवसाय स्थापित करने के लिए प्रारंभिक पूँजी है तो, इस (दूध उत्पादन) व्यवसाय को किसी भी क्षेत्रों में आसानी से स्थापित किया जा सकता है।
Pig is the only species of livestock from which major portion of the total investments made for establishing the farm can be earned back within 1½ – 2 years. Thus, the farmer is assured of getting over 60 per cent of profit margin from a marginal piggery unit. As a thumb rule, pigs have to put on more than 10 kg of body weight per month by consuming concentrate feed or agricultural byproducts or processed wastes from food industries. Though the white pigs have the western origin (temperate climate), they are better adapted to the Indian agro-climatic conditions. Nevertheless, the Large White Yorkshire breed is the widely accepted breed for pork (bacon, a cured meat from the back and side portions of the pig) production in the global scenario. Strategies have also been formulated to produce lean meat from synthetic strains of pigs through recent research approach, which would create better export opportunities. Hence, farmers without any doubt, can venture into farming this prolific species for their livelihood as well to contribute more to the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) to which contribution from livestock sector is, now-a-days, on the increase (from 4 to 8%).
The objective of commercial fish farming is to produce fish for sale and
earn profits. Therefore, production should be planned from the onset to
target identified markets. This means one should:
1. have the required product (size and form) available when the
market wants it,
2. be able to produce adequate volumes to sustain targeted markets,
3. produce at a competitive price and profit.
When making a production and business plan for table fish, one should
endeavor to answer the following questions beforehand.
1. Where is the market? – its location, what category of people are
likely to buy the fish I produce, etc
2. What does the market want? – type of fish, how much, what size,
how frequently, fresh or processed, etc.
3. What resources do I have? – number of pond(s), size of pond(s),
water for production (quantity, quality, flow rates), feeds, labour,
seed, etc.
4. From where and when should I source my seed and feed?
5. What is the quality of feed I intend to use? This is important
because it limits possible FCRs, water quality and carrying capacity.
6. How much feed and seed shall I require?
7. What technology do I have at my disposal and which would be the
best to adopt?
8. How frequently do I need to harvest for the market? (complete
harvest/partial harvests)
9. How do I get my fish to the market?
10. What returns can I expect from the above?
Few countries in the world have no sheep. They are found in tropical countries and in the arctic, in hot climates and in the cold, on the desert and in humid areas.
There are over 800 breeds of sheep in the world, in a variety of sizes, shapes, types and colours.
Sheep were domesticated long before the dawn of recorded history. Wool fibres have been found in remains of primitive villages of Switzerland that date back an estimated 20000 years. Egyptian sculpture dating 4000-5000 B.C. portrays the importance of this species to people. Much mention is
made in the Bible of flocks, shepherds, sacrificial lambs, and garments made of wool.
The Roman empire pried sheep, anointed them with special oils, and combed their fleece to produce fine quality fibres that were woven into fabric for the togas of the elite.
Perhaps the first ruminants domesticated by man along with goats, sheep are a very valuable and important asset to mankind.
Sheep is a important livestock species . They contribute greatly to the agrarian economy, especially in the arid/semi-arid and mountainous areas where crop and /or dairy farming are not economical. They play an important role in the livelihood of a large percentage of small and marginal
farmers and landless labourers engaged in sheep rearing. A number of rural-based industries use wool and sheep skins as raw material. Sheep manure is an important source of soil fertility, especially in southern states.
The aim of this booklet is to assist you in more effective use of pasture to achieve high sheep production. Essential for this are the ability to assess the amount of pasture in a paddock and knowledge of animal feeding needs.
This chapter discusses how to assess the amount of pasture in a paddock in relation to animal performance and seasonal pasture needs of sheep. The next chapter deals with setting up grazing rotations and feed budgeting.
Feed planning enables you to objectively match pasture supply and animal feed demands on your whole farm during the year. Some of you may feel daunted by this structured approach, but maximising production and achieving livestock target weights, including supply contracts, means more sophisticated pasture feeding.
Proper vaccination is an essential part of a good poultry management program and for the success of any poultry operation. Effective preventive procedures such as immunisation protect hundreds of millions of poultry worldwide from many contagious and deadly diseases and have resulted in improved flock health and production efficiency.
Immunization cannot be a substitute for poor bio-security and sanitation. Thus, vaccination programs may not totally protect birds that are under stress or in unhygienic conditions. The primary objective of immunizing any poultry flock is to reduce the level of clinical disease and to promote optimal performance. Certain vaccines may also have an impact on human health (i.e. Salmonella vaccines).
For breeders – we also want to accomplish some additional goals:
A. Protect the bird (as a pullet and hen) against specific diseases.
B. Protect the progeny of the hen against vertical transmission of disease.
C. Provide passive immunity to progeny.
In this book following points has been defined and described.
Define anatomy
Discuss the different fields of anatomy
Identify and describe the integumentary system
Identify and describe the musculoskeletal system
Identify and describe the cardiovascular system
Identify and describe the lymphatic system
Identify and describe the digestive system
Identify and describe the respiratory system
Identify and describe the endocrine system
Identify and describe the urinary system
Identify and describe the reproductive system
Identify and describe the nervous system and special senses
The term anatomy refers to the science that deals with the form and structure of animals. Physiology deals with the study of functions of the body or any of its parts. A thorough knowledge of the structure of an animal imparts a lot of information about the various functions it is capable of performing.
The course may be used as an introductory course to further studies; to assist you in recognising the normal, in order to determine the abnormal; to help you understand how to diagnose disease or determine if an animal has sustained an injury; to help understand the physical capabilities or limitations of particular species; to understand what happens in the nutrition and growth processes; and to assist you to get better performance from your animals.
Bio-Security plan is a set of practices designed to prevent the entry and spread of infectious diseases into and from a poultry farm.
Biosecurity requires the adoption of a set of attitudes and behaviours by people, to reduce risk in all activities involving poultry production and marketing.
Selection or formulation of appropriate diets for companion
and aviary birds is based on wild feeding ecology, digestive anatomy and physiology, and nutritional requirements of related species. Research indicates that requirements of some key nutrients for psittacines vary from those of poultry. Apart from vitamin E, there is no evidence to suggest that vitamin and trace mineral requirements for psittacines are greater than those recommended for poultry.54 While there are substantial differences between production species and companion
bird species, dietary requirements of poultry remain the
standard for estimating the needs of companion birds.
Individual nutrient classes will be discussed with particular
focus on recent research into the nutritional requirements of companion birds.
The decision to own and care for exotic birds is a decision which cannot be taken lightly. A lot of responsibility has to be accepted because a pet bird is not a low-maintenance pet. All pet birds require at least some specialized care.Very few “beginners” know the answers to the questions that arise concerning the management, breeding, rearing,disease prevention, and proper nutrition of birds. The “survivors” in aviculture have successful aviaries because their teacher has been experience, coupled with trial-anderror. Sometimes this teacher is expensive and can result in thousands of dollars of investment being lost. “Beginners” can increase their general knowledge in aviculture and
come up with answers to their questions by reading articles,
traveling to pet bird shows, attending lectures and talking
with people who have experience with pet birds.
Relatively speaking, most dogs today eat a more nutritional diet than their owners do.Though a carnivore, the dog utilises a wide variety of foodstuffs efficiently and can meet nutritional requirements from a diversity of diets.
Dogs regulate their food intake to meet energy requirements proper diets incorporate exact daily nutritional requirements into the amount of food consumed each day for energy.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
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6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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2. 1
What is diarWhat is diarWhat is diarWhat is diarWhat is diarrrrrrhoea and what causes it?hoea and what causes it?hoea and what causes it?hoea and what causes it?hoea and what causes it?
• Diarrhoea (purging, scours) can have many causes.
• Possible causes include bacterial and viral infections, certain chemicals,
intestinal parasites, poor diet, overfeeding on milk or lush grass, poisonous
plants and other toxins, food allergies and even stress.
• In diarrhoea, the intestine fails to adequately absorb fluids, and/or secretion
into the intestine is increased. Loss of fluids through diarrhoea produces
dehydration and the loss of certain body salts.
• It causes a change in body tissue composition and severe depression in the
animal.
• Death from scours is usually the result of dehydration and loss of body salts
rather than invasion of an infectious agent.
• The correct determination of the cause of diarrhoea is important in order to
take effective preventive measures.
Some conditions are always accompaniedSome conditions are always accompaniedSome conditions are always accompaniedSome conditions are always accompaniedSome conditions are always accompanied
by markby markby markby markby marked diared diared diared diared diarrrrrrhoeahoeahoeahoeahoea
• Poisoning by arsenic or plants such as tulp, chincherinchee,
slangkop and certain cereals contaminated with moulds.
• Worm infection, e.g. conical fluke.
• Infectious diseases, e.g. coccidiosis, salmonellosis,
colibacillosis, Johne’s disease or paratuberculosis.
When is diarWhen is diarWhen is diarWhen is diarWhen is diarrrrrrhoea verhoea verhoea verhoea verhoea very risky risky risky risky risky?y?y?y?y?
• Calf diarrhoea can cause a greater financial loss to
cow/calf producers than any other disease-related problem they encounter.
• The age of the animal is very important. The younger the animal, the greater the
chance of death. Many diarrhoea cases can be directly related to a lack of
colostrum intake by the newborn calf.
• A calf that consumes 750 ml to 1½ l colostrum in the first few hours after
birth will absorb an adequate number of antibodies and therefore will be less
susceptible to infections that can cause diarrhoea.
Slangkop
3. 2
DiarDiarDiarDiarDiarrrrrrhoea in calveshoea in calveshoea in calveshoea in calveshoea in calves
Viral diarViral diarViral diarViral diarViral diarrrrrrhoeahoeahoeahoeahoea
Rotavirus diarrhoea
• Within 24 hours of birth, a germ called rotavirus
causes this type of diarrhoea.
• Infected calves are severely depressed. There may be drooling of saliva and
watery diarrhoea.
• The faeces will vary in colour from yellow to green.
• Calves lose appetite and the death rate may be as high as 50 %.
• There are no signs on dead animals; however, there is an increased volume of
fluid in both the small and large intestine.
Coronavirus diarrhoea
• This occurs in calves that are over 5 days of age; the germ is called
coronavirus.
• The animal is not as depressed as in rotavirus diarrhoea.
• The initial signs may be the same as in rotavirus, but later on the faeces may
contain clear mucus that resembles the white of an egg.
• Mortality is low (1–25 %).
Bovine virus diarrhoea (BVD)
• Diarrhoea begins 2 to 3 days after exposure to the germ and may persist for a
long time.
• Ulcers on the tongue, lips and in the mouth are the usual lesions found in the
live calf.
• Bovine virus diarrhoea is controlled by vaccinating all replacement heifers 1 to
2 months before breeding.
• Pregnant heifers should not be vaccinated. Consult your state veterinarian
before starting a BVD vaccination programme.
Bacterial diarBacterial diarBacterial diarBacterial diarBacterial diarrrrrrhoeahoeahoeahoeahoea
Colibacillosis (Eschericia coli)
• Eschericia coli is a major cause of diarrhoea in young calves.
• E. coli germs attack the intestinal mucous membrane and other mucous
membranes and produce toxins (poisons).
4. 3
• The toxins cause severe inflammation of the intestinal lining (enteritis) and can
lead to death within hours. A less severe form of the disease is usually
characterised by diarrhoea accompanied by progressive dehydration.
• Colibacillosis lasts 2 to 4 days and its severity depends on the age of the calf.
• E. coli inhabits the intestine and is excreted in the faeces. It can contaminate
kraals, stables, floors, paddocks and even water supplies.
• Control of E. coli scours can be difficult in a severe herd outbreak. Early
detection (as well as isolation of affected animals) and treatment of scours
help to prevent new cases. Speak to your state veterinarian or animal health
technician for advice on the use of the available remedies, which are usually
mixtures of sulphas and antibiotics.
• Animals may be vaccinated 6 weeks and 3 weeks before
calving. However, the calves must get colostrum in the first few hours of life
for the vaccine to be effective.
• Guidelines for colibacillosis control consist of letting cows calve in an
uncontaminated environment, e.g. in the veld; ensuring that calves consume
enough colostrum and assisting weak calves; feeding or treating cows with a
vitamin A preparation during dry periods (winter); keeping calves in clean
pens and paddocks; feeding calves out of clean buckets; and the
vaccination of pregnant cows.
Salmonella
• Salmonella germs produce a poison called an endotoxin.
• Calves are usually affected at 6 days of age or older (the same as in
coronavirus diarrhoea).
• Signs of salmonella scours include diarrhoea, presence of blood and fibrin
(yellow clots) in the faeces, depression and elevated temperature.
• Salmonella germs multiply in the intestine and many reach the bloodstream,
causing blood infection and sudden death.
5. 4
• Finding a membrane-like cover in the intestine of a dead animal suggests
salmonellosis.
• Tick-borne diseases and underfeeding of calves predispose them to
salmonella scours. Heavily infected animals may become severely depressed
following treatment with antibiotics because treatment causes the salmonella
organisms to release toxins.
• Treatment should therefore be designed to combat the effects of endotoxins.
Consult your state veterinarian if possible. Animals that recover may become
sources of infection and therefore should preferably be destroyed.
• Poor feeding, unhygienic conditions and other predisposing causes should be
guarded against. Vaccines are available and details on their use may be
obtained from the state veterinarian or animal health technician.
Enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney)
• The disease usually starts quite suddenly. Affected animals become listless,
display uneasiness, and strain or kick at their abdomen. Bloody diarrhoea may
or may not occur.
• It is usually associated with change in the weather, a change in the feed of the
cows, or management practices that cause the calf to nurse for a longer
period of time than usual. The hungry calf may overconsume milk which
establishes an environment in the gut that is conducive to the growth and
production of toxins by germs.
• In dead animals the gut may be red in colour or have bloody, purplish areas.
• The disease can be controlled by vaccinating cows with an appropriate
vaccine (Clostridium perfringens toxoid) 60 and 30 days before calving.
Other causes of calf diarOther causes of calf diarOther causes of calf diarOther causes of calf diarOther causes of calf diarrrrrrhoeahoeahoeahoeahoea
Coccidiosis
• Coccidiosis occurs in calves of 3 weeks of age and older, usually
following stress, poor sanitation, overcrowding or sudden changes of feed.
• A typical sign of coccidiosis in young calves is diarrhoea with faeces
smeared over the rump as far around as the tail will reach. The
symptoms are diarrhoea, with slimy and bloody faeces, emaciation,
weakening and anaemia. The affected calves strain excessively when
they defecate.
• Speak to your veterinarian or animal health technician for treatment of the
disease with appropriate remedies such as sulphonamides and Amprolium.
• Good feeding practices, management and sanitation are possible control
options.
6. Nutritional diarrhoea
• Nutritional scours are caused by anything that disrupts the normal
nursing pattern, for example storms, strong wind or the mother’s
temporary absence. When the hungry calf gets the opportunity to
nurse, the cow’s udder may contain more milk than normal and the calf
may take in excessive quantities, resulting in nutritional scours.
• It is usually white scours caused by undigested milk passing through the
intestinal tract.
• It usually presents little problems. Milking the cow to limit the milk intake
by the calf usually clears up the problem. Oral antibiotics may be used
if the calf becomes depressed.
TTTTTreatment of calf scoursreatment of calf scoursreatment of calf scoursreatment of calf scoursreatment of calf scours
• Treatment of the forms of diarrhoea is very similar regardless of the cause.
• Specific treatment is often not possible and symptomatic treatment of the
diarrhoea itself should be applied.
• It should be directed towards correcting the loss of fluids (dehydration),
acidosis (acidity) and loss of salts.
• Calves may be given milk diluted with an equal quantity of clean water.
• Antibiotic and or sulpha treatment can be given simultaneously with the
treatment for dehydration.
• There are salt powders (also called electrolyte powders) available that can be
mixed with water for oral administration.
• If these powders are not available, oral preparations can be made on the
farm. Speak to your state veterinarian or animal health technician.
• For example, you can combine 1 tablespoon baking soda, 1 teaspoon salt
and 250 cc of 50 % dextrose (or light Karoo syrup), and add enough water
to total 5 l. You can also combine 2½ dessert spoons of salt, 2½ dessert
spoons of baking soda, 8 dessert spoons of glucose and add water to total
2 l.
DiarDiarDiarDiarDiarrrrrrhoea in adult cattlehoea in adult cattlehoea in adult cattlehoea in adult cattlehoea in adult cattle
Johne’s disease or paratuberculosis
• Johne’s disease is an incurable wasting disease of adult cattle.
5
7. • It is of greater concern in dairy herds than in beef operations. This difference
reflects variations in management practices—especially close confinement in
dairy operations, which promotes easier transmission of the organism.
• The germ causes an infectious inflammation of the intestines with severe
weight loss and diarrhoea.
• It is economically important because some animals may become so
emaciated that they are unfit for slaughter.
• Milk production is reduced.
• Johne’s disease should be suspected when, despite persistent diarrhoea,
animals continue to eat well and look bright. The manure of typical cases is not
mixed with blood or mucus.
• An adult cow with persistent diarrhoea, lasting for months, that is not
responding to treatment, is likely to have Johne’s disease.
Other causes of diarrhoea
• Salmonellosis (unusually a wasting disease in adults).
• Bovine virus diarrhoea.
• Winter dysentery, which affects several adult cattle in a herd simultaneously. It
is characterised by a dramatic decrease in milk production and loss of body
condition.
• Intestinal parasites rarely produce severe diarrhoea in adults, but it is possible.
• Poisonous plants and other chemical poisonings (e.g. arsenic) usually cause
sudden diarrhoea.
TTTTTreatmentreatmentreatmentreatmentreatment
• A veterinarian or animal health technician should be consulted if possible on
the best course of treatment—especially when diarrhoea is severe or
persistent.
• Try to determine the cause and then apply appropriate treatment.
• Always administer clean water or barley water at intervals of 2 to 3 hours to
compensate for the loss of body fluids.
• Dosing activated charcoal with water may be of benefit in cases of poisoning.
• Limewater, tannic acid or commercial diarrhoea remedies could be used to
treat diarrhoea if the animal is in danger of dehydrating. If the diarrhoea is not
severe and the animal is not dehydrating it is better not to stop the diarrhoea.
• Sulphas and antibiotics should only be used on the recommendation of a
veterinarian or animal health technician.
6