This document discusses various biological processes involving changes in form, including metamorphosis, regeneration, and aging. Metamorphosis refers to how organisms develop and change form, such as insects undergoing complete metamorphosis from egg to larva to pupa to adult. Regeneration involves regrowing lost or damaged body parts, seen in organisms like hydra, starfish, and salamanders. Aging is the process of accumulating changes over time that affects organisms physically, psychologically, and at cellular levels. Environmental factors and lifestyle choices can influence the aging process.

2. Metamorphosis
 Means “change of form” in greek
 Metamorphosis refers to the way that certain organisms
develop grow, and change form.

3. Insects
 invertebrate animal of the class Insecta of the phylum
Arthropoda
. Like other arthropods, an insect has a hard outer covering, or
exoskeleton, a segmented body, and jointed legs. Adult insects
typically have wings and are the only flying invertebrates.
 Make up about 75% of the animal world
 Their bodies are divided into 3 regions: head, thorax, and
abdomen

4. Parts of an insect (bee)

5. Diapause
 This is the suspension of development that can occur
at the embryonic, larval, pupal, or adult stage,
depending on the species

6. 2 forms of development
1. Incomplete
- it has three stages
- egg --> nymph --> adult
- at each stage, the insects looks much the same as it
becomes an adult

8. 2 Forms of Development
2. Complete
- there are 4 stages of development
- egg --> larvae --> pupae --> adult

9. Life Cycle of a Butterfly

10. Life Cycle of a Frog

11. Environmental Influences
 Amphibians – “double life in greek
 Environmental factors include temperature, food
levels, tadpole densities, pond evaporation rates &
predator presence such that: increasing temperature,
decreasing food, overcrowding, pond evaporation &
increase in predation all accelerate metamorphosis
 Transition from larva to adults involves precisely
controlled gene regulatory events that occur at specific
stages during development

12. Regeneration
 Regeneration is the sequence of morphogenetic events
that restores the normal structure of an organ after its
partial or total amputation.
 This has been studied in organisms including hydra,
starfish, zerbafish, newt, mouse, and human.
 The human liver is one of the few glands in the body that
has the ability to regenerate from as little at 25% of it’s
tissue.
 http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-
iv/growth-regeneration-ageing/regeneration.php

13. Types of Regeneration
 1. Physiological Regeneration
There is a constant loss of many kinds of calls due to
wear and tear caused by day-to-day activities. The
replacement of these cells is known as physiological
regeneration
Example:
Replacement of Epidermal Cells on the Skin
Replacement of R.B.C's

14. Types or Regeneration
 2. Reparative Regeneration
This is the replacement of lost parts or repair of damaged
body organs. In this type of regeneration, wound is repaired
or closed by the expansion of the adjoining epidermis over
the wound.
Example:
Regeneration of limbs in salamanders
Regeneration of lost tail in lizard
Healing of wound
Replacement of damaged cells.

15. Types of Regeneration
 3. Autonomy
In some animals like starfish, some part of the body is
broken off on being threatened by a predator. This
phenomenon of self-mutilation of the body is called
autotomy
Example:
Crabs break off their leg on approaching of the enemy
Holothurians throw off their internal viscera
Starfish breaks off an arm

16. 2Types of Regeneration based on
Cellular Mechanism
1. Epimorphosis or epimorphic regeneration :
This type of regeneration involves dedifferentiation of
adult structures in order to form an undifferentiated
mass of cells, or addition of parts to remaining pieces .
For example: limb generation in amphibians

17. Regeneration in Vertebrates
Early regeneration process of
a deer’s antlers Emperior Newt

18. 2. Morpholaxis or morphollactic regeneration:
In this type, regeneration occurs mainly by the remodelling
of existing tissues and the re-establishment of
boundaries, thus involving very little new growth. As a
result, the regenerated individual is much smaller
initially. It subsequently increases its size and becomes
normal after feeding. This type of regeneration is known
as morphallaxis or morphallactic regeneration.
Example: Hydra, planaria and other invertebrates e.g.
regeneration of the new individual from body pieces.

19. Regeneration in Invertebrates
 A planarian, hydra, and a starfish all show remarkable
powers of regeneration. When parts are removed or a
small fragment isolated. A whole animal can be
regenerated.

20. Aging
 Aging is a pattern of life changes that occurs as one
grows older. It is a process that accumulates changes in
organisms or objects over time. Human aging process
involves, psychological, cultural and social levels.

21. Normal Effects of Aging in the Body

22. Biological changes
 Gerontology – study of aging and the elderly
 Physical Changes – predictable graying hair, wrinkles,
loss of height & weight, decline in strength and vitality
and sensory changes. Odds of chronic illness and life
threatening conditions rise steady
 A majority of those people over 65 report good health
 “well-to-do” people have it better since they can afford
preventive care

23. Psychological Changes
 The elderly can become more introspective / more
“self-awareness”
 Major shifts in personalities do not normally take place

24. Factors that add to the Effects of
Aging
1. Ultraviolet light – UV light destroys collagen and
elastic fibers in the skin, without which your skin
starts sagging and wrinkling.
2. Smoking – worsens the process of wrinkling by
affecting the blood supply to the skin and other parts
of the body.

25. Aging Process
1. Cellular Changes
Cellular multiplication slows down with age. The rate of
T-lymphocytes of the immune system decreases with age.
2. Genetic Factors
The genes associated with the mechanisms of
programmed cells death(apoptosis) also affects aging in
individuals.
3. Environmental Factors
Environmental stress associated with exposure to
excessive heat and light trigger the activity of aging
genes. Constant exposure to toxins and poisons
accentuate the aging process.

26. 4. Health Conditions
There are certain genetic disorders that completely
change the phenotype of an individual
5. Unhealthy Lifestyle
Aging process in men is mainly brought about by over
consumption of alcohol and heavy smoking. Lack of
exercise, inadequate rest or sleep, mental stress show
symptoms of early aging. Other factors like regular
consumption of excessive spicy food and caffeine
renders and old look. Sloth and sluggish lifestyle
makes one feel old.