This document discusses various types of physiological adaptation in humans and other organisms. It defines structural, behavioral, and physiological adaptations and provides examples. It also describes the general adaptation syndrome, factors that underlie adaptation like genetic change and developmental adjustment. It discusses specific types of adaptations to different temperatures, physical activity, hypokinesia, hypoxia, and psychogenic factors.

1. N.P OGAREV MORDOVIA RESEARCH STATE
UNIVERSITY
TOPIC : PHYSIOLOGY OF adaptation
PRESENTED BY : SAFWAN AFTAB
225 A
SUBMITTED TO: MELNIKOVANATALYA
ALEKSEEVNA

2. CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 4
STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION 7
BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATION 8
GENERALADAPTATION SYNDROME (GAS) 9
BIOLOGICALAND SOCIAL FACTORS THAT UNDERLIE ADAPTATION 10
GENETIC CHANGE 11
DEVELOPMENTAL ADJUSTMENT 13
ACCLIMATIZATION 15
COMBINED EFFECTS 16

3. FEATURES OF ADAPTATION TO INDIVIDUAL FACTORS 17
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES 18
PHYSICALACTIVITY 20
HYPOKINESIA 24
HYPOXIA 28
PSYCHOGENIC FACTORS 34
CONCLUSION 35
REFERENCES 36

4. INTRODUCTION
 What is adaptaion
 how they change their body and behaviour, to better suit the conditions of
its natural environment.
 There are around 8 to 10 million living species, including plants, animals and
birds found all across the world and they have developed themselves to
their environments.
 For instance: Camels, cacti and other species living in hot desert regions
have long adapted to the dry and hot weather. Similarly, the polar bears
have adapted to the cold surfaces and thick fur protects them from
freezing weather

5.  What are Physiological Adaptations?
 This type of adaptation is present in all living organisms,
including humans, birds, animals and plants. As per its name,
physiological adaptation refers to the internal organs, tissues
and cells. In this type of adaptation, the cellular features,
internal organs, changes in the hormonal level, mood swings and
other features help an organism to survive, adapt and respond
to the changes in its environment.
 In humans, physiological adaptation can be observed and is
called human adaptation

6.  Types of adaptation
 Based on the responses observed in plants and animals, adaptations are
further classified into the following types:
 Structural Adaptations
 Behavioural Adaptations
 Physical Adaptations

7. Structural Adaptations
 This type of adaptation is mainly based on unique attributes which involve
body parts, such as the shape of the body, texture and colour of the skin,
etc. This type of adaptation helps organisms to survive in their natural
habitat.
 Camouflage is one of the common structural adaptations seen in animals.
 Examples of structural adaptations include:
 Baleen is a filter-feeding system present inside the mouth of the whales,
which functions as a sieve by filtering krill and other smaller fishes for
their food.
 A woodpecker bird has a sharp and pointed beak, which helps in making their
nests in tree trunks and finding insects for their food.

8. Behavioural adaptation
 Animals and birds usually practise this type of adaptation to survive in their
environments.
 Dormancy, camouflage, hibernation and migration are different types of
behavioural adaptations practised by both plants and animals.
 Examples of behavioural adaptations include:
 Bears, bats, bumblebees, honey bees and other species hibernate in winter
to escape the cold temperatures and preserve food and energy.
 Some species of birds and animals migrate to different places in search of
food and shelter.
 Some plants exhibit dormancy when growth and other developments are
temporarily stopped due to unfavourable environmental factors. Seed
dormancy is an example of a plant showing behavioural adaptations. This
type of adaptation is seen both in plants and animals

9. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
 Selye proposed a three-stage pattern of response to stress that he called the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
 He proposed that when the organism first encountered stress, in the form of
novelty or threat, it responded with an alarm reaction. The immediate response to
stress is the release of adrenaline into the blood plasma. The alarm stage is similar
to the fight-to-flight response, and the body mobilizes resources to react to the
unfavorable factor.
 This is followed by a recovery or resistance stage during which the organism
repairs itself and stores energy. This factor is provided by hormones -
corticosteroids. At this stage, the physiological systems work more economically
than at the first stage. Plastic and energy metabolism is enhanced.
 If the stress-causing events continue, exhaustion sets in. This third stage is what
became known popularly as burn-out. The exhaustion stage will cause death if the
body is unable to overcome the threat.

10. Biological and social factors that underlie
adaptation
1. Genetic change
2. developmental adjustment
3. Acclimatization
4. cultural practices and technology

11. Genetic change
 When an environmental stress is constant and lasts for many
generations, successful adaptation may develop through biological
evolution.
 Those individuals who inherit a trait that offers an advantage in
responding to particular stresses are more likely to survive longer
and pass on more of their genes to the next generation. This is
evolution through natural selection.
 For instance, people whose ancestors have lived in areas that have
had endemic click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced
malaria for thousands of years often inherit some degree of
immunity to this serious disease

12.  The high incidence of sickle-cell trait among the people of Central
Africa is largely the result of indirect selection for this trait by
malaria. Heterozygous carriers of the sickling gene usually do not
have sickle-cell anemia and are sufficiently resistant to the malarial
microorganism that they are at a selective advantage
 Another example of a genetic solution to an environmental stress is
our ability to produce sweat as an aid in cooling our bodies in hot
environments. It is not surprising that we have this capability
because our immediate prehuman ancestors were tropical animals.

13. Developmental Adjustment
 One of the more powerful types of adjustments to environmental
stresses is a change in growth patterns and development. This
occurs in childhood and typically results in anatomical changes that
are mostly irreversible in adulthood. Such permanent changes are
referred to as developmental adjustment or developmental
acclimatization.
 X-ray picture of a severly deformed and stunted foot
 Black and white photo of an early 20th century Chinese woman with
feet that been bound when she was a child
 X-ray of an early 20th century
 Chinese woman’s bound foot

14.  The growth was stunted and the bones were significantly deformed
so that they could fit into a tiny pointed slipper.
 Among humans, developmental adjustments result from both natural
environmental pressures and cultural practices. An example of the
latter was the now illegal custom in China of tightly wrapping or
binding the feet of young girls with cloth in order to hinder normal
growth. While this caused permanent, crippling deformities of the
foot bones, it also resulted in extremely tiny feet which were
considered to be very attractive. Parents crippled their daughters
with good intentions. Small feet would make them more attractive
marriage partners for rich important men and save them from a life
of drudgery.

15. Acclimatization
 All other forms of adjustment to environmental stresses
are usually reversible whether they occur in childhood or
adulthood.
 These reversible changes are referred to as
acclimatization or acclimatory adjustment.
 It is useful to consider the different forms of
acclimatization in terms of the length of time over which
they can occur.

16. Combined effects
 Genetic adaptation and the three types of adjustments to
environmental stresses are not always distinct phenomena.
 Acclimatization occurring in childhood may result in permanent
anatomical changes, as is often the case with malnutrition.
When an acclimatization is successful in providing good health
and longevity, it can give individuals a selective advantage in
passing on their genes to the next generation. This can have a
strong determinant effect on the direction of evolution. In
turn, genetic change can play a significant role in adjustment
since the ability to acclimatize is ultimately dependent on
genetic makeup.

17. Features of adaptation to individual
factors:
Different temperature
Physical activity
Hypokinesia
Hypoxia
Psychogenic factors

18. Different Temperature
 Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad
adaptability of Homo sapiens.
 Adaptations in humans can be physiological, genetic, or cultural,
which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates.
 There has been a great deal of research done on developmental
adjustment, acclimatization, and cultural practices, but less
research on genetic adaptations to colder and hotter
temperature

19.  The human body always works to remain in homeostasis. One form of
homeostasis is thermoregulation.
 Body temperature varies in every individual, but the average internal
temperature is 37.0 °C (98.6 °F).
 Sufficient stress from extreme external temperature may cause injury or
death if it exceeds the ability of the body to thermoregulate.
 Hypothermia can set in when the core temperature drops to 35 °C (95 °F).
 Hyperthermia can set in when the core body temperature rises above 37.5–38.3
°C (99.5–100.9 °F).
 Humans have adapted to living in climates where hypothermia and hyperthermia
were common primarily through culture and technology, such as the use of
clothing and shelter.

20. Physical Activity
 There are physiological changes that occur to your body in
response to the demands of exercise.
 1. Acute effects are those responses that occur while you are
exercising and in the recovery period.
 2. Chronic effects are long term adaptations that take at least
6 weeks to occur.

21.  Increased Heart Rate
 Increased Respiration Rate
 Increased Stroke Volume
 Increased Cardiac Output-Q
 Increased VO2
 Increased Tidal Volume
 Increased Systolic Blood Pressure
 Increased Blood to working muscles

22.  Increased Heart Rate
 When you exercise your heart rate (beats per minute) goes up to
increase the supply of oxygen to your working muscles.
 Increased Respiration Rate
 Respiratory rate is the number of breaths taken in one minute.
During exercise amounts of carbon dioxide increases as it is a waste
product and the respiratory rate goes up to increase oxygen and
decrease carbon dioxide.

23.  Increased Stroke Volume
 Stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of your left
ventricle with each beat of the heart. This goes up to increase
oxygen supply to working muscles.
 Increased Systolic Blood Pressure
 Systolic blood pressure is the pressure as the left ventricle ejects
blood into the aorta. Diastolic is the pressure in the arteries. Only
the systolic pressure increases during exercise.

24. Hypokinesia
 Hypokinesia is one of the classifications of movement disorders, and
refers to decreased bodily movement.
 Hypokinesia is characterized by a partial or complete loss of muscle
movement due to a disruption in the basal ganglia.
 Hypokinesia is a symptom of Parkinson’s disease shown as muscle
rigidity and an inability to produce movement.
 It is also associated with mental health disorders and prolonged
inactivity due to illness, amongst other diseases.

25.  The effect of hypokinesia on the body
 Adaptive and compensatory reactions decrease;
 the functional and structural basis of movement changes
(discoordination, joint stiffness);
 there is a pathological decrease in motor activity with impaired
statokinetic reflexes (maintaining balance);
 energy and basal metabolism decrease, oxygen deficiency increases

26.  Causes Of Hypokinesia
 The most common causes of hypokinesia are dysfunction of the
basal ganglia and a decrease in excitation processes in the motor
cortex.
 A deficiency in motor activity can also cause hypokinesia – for
example, prolonged immobilization due to trauma or serious illness.
 Decreased physical activity is observed in some mental disorders.

27.  Causes of hypokinesia include:
 degenerative disorders;
 taking certain medications;
 vascular disorders;
 trauma;
 intoxication;
 central nervous system infections;
 metabolic disorders;
 neuromuscular disorders.
 Hypokinesia of the gallbladder occurs due to a decrease in its motor-
evacuation function. With the insufficient contraction of the gallbladder,
less bile enters the digestive tract. Patients complain of dull pain in the
right hypochondrium without clear irradiation.

28. Hypoxia
 Molecular oxygen (O2) sustains intracellular bioenergetics and is
consumed by numerous biochemical reactions, making it essential for
most species on Earth.
 Accordingly, decreased oxygen concentration (hypoxia) is a major
stressor that generally subverts life of aerobic species and is a
prominent feature of pathological states encountered in bacterial
infection, inflammation, wounds, cardiovascular defects and cancer.
 Therefore, key adaptive mechanisms to cope with hypoxia have
evolved in mammals. Systemically, these adaptations include
increased ventilation, cardiac output, blood vessel growth and
circulating red blood cell numbers. On a cellular level, ATP-consuming
reactions are suppressed, and metabolism is altered until oxygen
homeostasis is restored.

29.  Critical question is how mammalian cells sense oxygen levels to
coordinate diverse biological outputs during hypoxia.
 The best-studied mechanism of response to hypoxia involves
hypoxia inducible factors (HIFs), which are stabilized by low
oxygen availability and control the expression of a multitude of
genes, including those involved in cell survival, angiogenesis,
glycolysis and invasion/metastasis.

30.  Importantly, changes in oxygen can also be sensed via
other stress pathways as well as changes in metabolite
levels and the generation of reactive oxygen species by
mitochondria. Collectively, this leads to cellular
adaptations of protein synthesis, energy metabolism,
mitochondrial respiration, lipid and carbon metabolism as
well as nutrient acquisition. These mechanisms are integral
inputs into fine-tuning the responses to hypoxic stress.

31.  METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS TO HYPOXIA
 A key metabolic modification promoted by HIF is the upregulation of
ATP production in an O2-independent manner via cytosolic glycolysis.
HIF mediates a switch away from oxidative phosphorylation and
toward glycolysis via the upregulation of glucose transporters and
glycolytic enzymes in conjunction with an increase in lactate
dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 expression,
which regenerates the NAD+ required to permit glycolysis to
continue by shunting the end product of glycolysis, pyruvate, away
from the Krebs cycle and toward lactate production

32.  HYPOXIC ADAPTATION IN THE FETAL HEART
 The developing fetal heart thrives in the hypoxic
intrauterine environment through appropriate substrate
selection. It relies exclusively on glycolysis, with
suppression of oxidative pathways until after birth .
 The metabolic phenotype is achieved by the action of a
transcription factor, Hand1, which specifically represses
the expression of proteins involved in FAO and the Krebs
cycle, by directly binding to and repressing the gene
promoters.

33.  Hand1 is under direct transcriptional control by HIF1. It is abundant in
fetal cardiomyocytes but undergoes a sharp drop soon after birth.
 The Hand1-triggered substrate switch demonstrates the potential
survival benefit from upregulating glycolytic ATP production and
downregulating O2-dependent pathways when oxygen availability is
limited.
 It also highlights the importance of being able to switch back when
oxygen becomes available, as after birth, failure to deactivate Hand1
results in rapid death

34. Psychogenic Factors
 A psychological adaptation is a functional, cognitive or behavioral trait that benefits
an organism in its environment. Psychological adaptations fall under the scope of
evolved psychological mechanisms
 Psychological adaptations include only the functional traits that increase the fitness
of an organism, while EPMs refer to any psychological mechanism that developed
through the processes of evolution
 These additional EPMs are the by-product traits of a species’ evolutionary
development (see spandrels), as well as the vestigial traits that no longer benefit the
species’ fitness. It can be difficult to tell whether a trait is vestigial or not, so some
literature is more lenient and refers to vestigial traits as adaptations, even though
they may no longer have adaptive functionality.

35. Conclusion
 Adaptation – The process which enables organisms to adjust to their
environment in order to ensure survival .
 Behavioral Adaptations – Actions of an organism that enable them to
survive in their environment (e.g. bears hibernate in winter to escape
the cold temperatures and preserve energy).
 Structural Adaptations – Physical features of an organism that
enable them to survive in their environment (e.g. a penguin has
blubber to protect itself from freezing temperatures).
 Physiological Adaptations – Internal and/or cellular features of an
organism that enable them to survive in their environment (e.g.
snakes produce poisonous venom to ward off predators and to
capture prey)

36. References
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_adaptation
 https://www.slideshare.net/Drraveesoni/movement-disorders-
53890175
 https://www.slideshare.net/JyotiGaver/stress-and-adaptation-
91164432
 https://byjus.com/biology/physiological-
adaptations/#:~:text=As%20per%20its%20name%2C%20physi
ological,the%20changes%20in%20its%20environment
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5554481/

37. большое спасибо!!