Metamorphosis
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Classification of reptilia
This document provides a classification of reptiles based on their anatomical features. It discusses the five subclasses of reptiles: Anapsida, Euryapsida, Parapsida, Synapsida, and Diapsida. Within Diapsida are two superorders - Lepidosauria containing lizards and snakes, and Archosauria containing crocodilians. Key characteristics are described for each order, including turtles within Anapsida, lizards and snakes within Lepidosauria, and crocodilians. Temporal bone structure is an important distinguishing feature between subclasses.
Parental care in Amphibians
Parental care in amphibians provides benefits to offspring survival. There are various types of parental care exhibited by different amphibian species, including selecting protected nesting sites, defending eggs or territories, directly transporting tadpoles to water, gluing or carrying eggs attached to the body, and even viviparity in some species. Parental care improves offspring chances of survival by protecting eggs from predators and ensuring young amphibians safely reach water once hatched.
Torsion in gastropoda
1. Torsion is a twisting of parts of the body that occurs during development in gastropods. This causes the mantle cavity and pallial complex to shift to the front of the body.
2. Specifically, the visceral hump and pallial complex undergo a 180 degree anti-clockwise rotation, bringing the mantle cavity and anus to the front. This changes the gastropod body from bilateral to asymmetrical.
3. Theories on the evolution of torsion suggest it provides advantages for both larvae in escaping predators and adults in stability and water flow. Detorsion may partially or fully reverse the effects of torsion in some groups.
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Neoteny
This document discusses the differences between neoteny and paedogenesis. Neoteny involves slowed somatic growth such that organisms remain in juvenile stages, while paedogenesis involves accelerated sexual maturity even as larvae. Neoteny can be seen in humans while paedogenesis is found in amphibians like salamanders. There are two types of neoteny - total neoteny where larvae become sexually mature but retain larval features, and partial neoteny which involves a postponed metamorphosis beyond normal periods due to environmental or physiological factors. Neoteny is viewed as an adaptive consequence of retaining larval features that may be advantageous in certain environments.
General characters amphibia
1) Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates that can live both on land and in water. They have four limbs and lungs as adults.
2) Amphibians are classified into three subclasses: Labyrinthodontia, Lepospondyli, and Lissamphibia.
3) The three orders of modern amphibians (Lissamphibia) are Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders), and Apoda (limbless amphibians).
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This document provides a classification of reptiles based on their anatomical features. It discusses the five subclasses of reptiles: Anapsida, Euryapsida, Parapsida, Synapsida, and Diapsida. Within Diapsida are two superorders - Lepidosauria containing lizards and snakes, and Archosauria containing crocodilians. Key characteristics are described for each order, including turtles within Anapsida, lizards and snakes within Lepidosauria, and crocodilians. Temporal bone structure is an important distinguishing feature between subclasses.
Parental care in Amphibians
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Torsion in gastropoda
1. Torsion is a twisting of parts of the body that occurs during development in gastropods. This causes the mantle cavity and pallial complex to shift to the front of the body.
2. Specifically, the visceral hump and pallial complex undergo a 180 degree anti-clockwise rotation, bringing the mantle cavity and anus to the front. This changes the gastropod body from bilateral to asymmetrical.
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General characters amphibia
1) Amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates that can live both on land and in water. They have four limbs and lungs as adults.
2) Amphibians are classified into three subclasses: Labyrinthodontia, Lepospondyli, and Lissamphibia.
3) The three orders of modern amphibians (Lissamphibia) are Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders), and Apoda (limbless amphibians).
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Dentition in Mammals
DENTITION IN MAMMALS
The study of arrangement structure and number of types of teeth collectively is called as dentition. Teeth are present in the foetal as well as in adults of mammals, based on the presence of teeth Mammals are two types.
Edentata : In some animals teeth are absent hence called as edentate. e.g., Echidna or spiny ant-eater (Tachyglossus) the teeth are absent in all stages of life.
Dentata : Teeth are present in all mammals though a secon¬dary toothless condition is found in some mammals. Modern turtles and birds lack teeth. The adult platypus (Ornithorhynchus) bears epidermal teeth but no true teeth are present. In platypus embryonic teeth are replaced by horny epidermal teeth in adult.
Classification According to the Shape and Size of the Teeth:
Homodont:
Homodont or Isodont type of teeth is a condition where the teeth are all alike in their shape and size in the toothed whales e.g., Pinnipedians. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles and in the extinct toothed birds.
Heterodont
Heterodont condition is the usual feature in mammals, i.e. the teeth are distinguished according to their shape, size and function. The function is also different at different parts of the tooth row.
According to the Mode of Attachment of Teeth:
Thecodont : The teeth are lodged in bony sockets or alveoli of the jaw bone and capillaries and nerves enter the pulp cavity through the open tips of the hollow roots e.g., mammals, crocodiles and in some fishes.
Acrodont: The teeth are fused to the surface of the underlying jawbone. They have no roots and are attached to the edge of the jawbone by fibrous membrane e.g., fishes, amphibians and some reptiles.
Pleurodont:
The teeth are attached to the inner-side of the jawbone. The tooth touches the bone only with the outer surface of its root. In acrodont and pleurodont types of dentition, there are no roots, and nerves and blood vessels do not enter the pulp cavity at the base, e.g., Necturus (Amphibia) and some reptiles.
According to the Succession or Replace¬ment of Teeth:
Aortic arches in vertebrates
Vertebrates generally have a ventral aorta and dorsal aorta, with six pairs of aortic arches that branch off and pass through gill arches. In fishes, the six pairs of arches each pass blood through the gills. Over time, some arches reduce or disappear, with sharks having five pairs and most fish having four functional pairs. In land vertebrates like reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals, the number of arches reduces further to three pairs or less as lungs replace gills and the circulatory system evolves to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
succession of kidneys in a vertebrate series
1. Kidneys evolve from the primitive archinephros to the pronephros, mesonephros, and finally the metanephros, which is the definitive kidney of amniotes.
2. The pronephros is the first to develop and is functional only in embryonic or larval stages. The mesonephros follows and is functional in embryos and adults of some species.
3. The metanephros is the adult kidney of amniotes and shows greater complexity with millions of nephrons and additional structures like loops of Henle in mammals.
Flight adaptations in birds
Birds have numerous anatomical and morphological adaptations for flight. Their bodies are lightweight yet strong, with hollow bones connected to an advanced respiratory system. Many bones are fused to provide rigidity. Their powerful flight muscles are anchored to a keeled sternum. Other adaptations include short tails for steering, highly mobile necks, and modified forelimbs that serve as wings providing lift through flapping powered by strong pectoral muscles. These numerous adaptations allow birds to harness the principles of aerodynamics and achieve sustained flight.
Metamorphosis in Amphibians
Amphibian metamorphosis is initiated by thyroid hormones that travel through the bloodstream and induce changes in organs and tissues. This includes the growth of adult structures like limbs, remodeling of larval structures like the intestine and nervous system, and programmed cell death of larval structures like gills and tail. The levels of thyroid hormones regulate the timing and progression of metamorphosis through different stages from pre-metamorphosis to metamorphic climax. While some tissues proliferate and differentiate in response to thyroid hormones, other tissues are instructed to degenerate, allowing the transition from aquatic larva to terrestrial adult.
Digestive system of vertebrates
1. The document describes the digestive system of vertebrates, including the development and anatomy of key structures like the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver and gallbladder.
2. It notes that the digestive tract develops from the embryonic archenteron and surrounding mesoderm. Structures vary between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.
3. Accessory organs like the tongue, teeth and salivary glands are described. The stomach and intestines show diversity between species related to diet. The liver and gallbladder function to produce and store bile.
Water vascular system of star fish
he water vascular system is a modified part of the coelom.
It is otherwise called the ambulacral system.
Metamorphosis-amphibians, hormonal control
Metamorphosis in amphibians involves dramatic changes initiated by thyroid hormones that transform aquatic larvae into terrestrial adults. These changes include remodeling of tissues and organs like development of lungs and loss of gills to transition from aquatic to terrestrial respiration. Changes in skin, digestive system and other organs prepare the amphibian for life on land. The process is controlled by thyroid hormones which activate receptors that turn on genes driving tissue remodeling and metamorphosis.
vittelogenesis.pptx
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
Visceral arches
Visceral arches are pieces of cartilage or bone that support the pharyngeal region in vertebrates and help attach the jaws to the skull. There are typically 7 pairs of visceral arches that are modified differently in vertebrate groups depending on the presence of gills and jaw suspension type. Cyclostomes lack identifiable typical cartilage patterns and have a fused branchial basket to support gills. Elasmobranchs have a full set of visceral arches and 3 unpaired branchial cartilages. Bony fishes have modifications for jaw movement and suspension with a reduced last arch. Amphibians have 6 arches as larvae with the last 3 bearing gills, and modifications form their air breathing
Lateral line system
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
Scale of fishes
Scales are an important part of the exoskeleton of most fish species. There are several different types of scales that evolved over time, including placoid, cycloid, ctenoid, cosmoid, and ganoid scales. Placoid scales are found in sharks and resemble teeth, while cycloid and ctenoid scales are thin and circular or spiny and found in bony fish. Scales provide protection and can be used to determine age and growth rates in fish, as well as provide information about extinct fish species and the diets of predatory animals.
Flight adaptation and Mechanism Of Flight in Birds.
This document discusses flight adaptations and the mechanism of flight in birds. It describes the key morphological adaptations birds have developed for flight including their streamlined bodies, lightweight feathers, modified forelimbs that form wings, and other adaptations. It also discusses important anatomical modifications such as their lightweight skeletons, strong breast muscles, and efficient respiratory and circulatory systems. Finally, it explains how birds generate lift through their airfoils and use a downward power stroke and upward recovery stroke of their wings to fly through flapping.
Parental care in fishes By TANZEEBA AMIN
Parental care is an important behavior for perpetuating fish species. Many fish species care for their eggs and young in various ways. Some fish build different types of nests, such as circular, basin-shaped, or barrel-shaped nests to lay and care for eggs. Other fish deposit eggs in suitable locations or carry them in their mouths or pouches. Some fish are viviparous. Parental care benefits offspring survival but increases costs to parents. There is great diversity in parental care strategies among fish species.
Phylogenetic relationship of protochordates
This document discusses the evolutionary relationships between chordates, hemichordates, and echinoderms. It notes that chordates and hemichordates share some characteristics like a dorsal nerve cord and pharyngeal slits, though it is unclear if these are homologous. Chordates are distinguished by features like a tadpole larva, notochord, post-anal tail, and endostyle. The document suggests that hemichordates, chordates, and echinoderms had a common ancestor and that early echinoderms were sessile filter feeders. Through paedomorphosis, chordates evolved from these sessile ancestors into a larval form that was mobile and fish-like,
Skull typpes
This document summarizes the different types of skulls found in reptiles:
- Anapsid skulls, found in primitive reptiles and turtles, have no temporal fenestrae.
- Euryapsid skulls, found in marine reptiles like plesiosaurs, have a single pair of fenestrae high on the skull.
- Parapsid skulls, seen in ichthyosaurs, are similar but with additional bones bordering the single fenestrae.
- Diapsid skulls, common in living reptiles and dinosaurs, contain two pairs of fenestrae on each side of the skull.
- Synapsid skulls, seen in early mammal-like reptiles
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The document discusses the complete metamorphosis life cycle of butterflies. It goes through the four stages of egg, larvae (caterpillar), pupa, and adult. During complete metamorphosis, the insect undergoes a dramatic physical change between each stage, from egg to crawling caterpillar to non-feeding pupa and finally to winged adult. The adult stage is when the butterfly emerges fully formed with its characteristic wings, legs, and appearance.
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Parental care in amphibians
This document discusses various forms of parental care exhibited by amphibians to increase offspring survival. It outlines nine types of parental care observed in amphibians: 1) selection of safe egg-laying sites, 2) frothing of water around eggs, 3) defending egg territories, 4) building nests from mud, leaves, or plant shoots, 5) direct development from egg to juvenile, 6) carrying eggs attached to the body, 7) carrying larvae between water bodies, 8) brooding eggs in vocal sacs or pouches on the back, and 9) retaining eggs internally in a uterus for viviparous development.
Gastrulation chick
How 3 germ layers are formed in Chick that are endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.As Chick are polylecithal so cell movements are somewhat restricted and gastrulation is modified as compared to frog.
Dentition in Mammals
DENTITION IN MAMMALS
The study of arrangement structure and number of types of teeth collectively is called as dentition. Teeth are present in the foetal as well as in adults of mammals, based on the presence of teeth Mammals are two types.
Edentata : In some animals teeth are absent hence called as edentate. e.g., Echidna or spiny ant-eater (Tachyglossus) the teeth are absent in all stages of life.
Dentata : Teeth are present in all mammals though a secon¬dary toothless condition is found in some mammals. Modern turtles and birds lack teeth. The adult platypus (Ornithorhynchus) bears epidermal teeth but no true teeth are present. In platypus embryonic teeth are replaced by horny epidermal teeth in adult.
Classification According to the Shape and Size of the Teeth:
Homodont:
Homodont or Isodont type of teeth is a condition where the teeth are all alike in their shape and size in the toothed whales e.g., Pinnipedians. Fishes, amphibians, reptiles and in the extinct toothed birds.
Heterodont
Heterodont condition is the usual feature in mammals, i.e. the teeth are distinguished according to their shape, size and function. The function is also different at different parts of the tooth row.
According to the Mode of Attachment of Teeth:
Thecodont : The teeth are lodged in bony sockets or alveoli of the jaw bone and capillaries and nerves enter the pulp cavity through the open tips of the hollow roots e.g., mammals, crocodiles and in some fishes.
Acrodont: The teeth are fused to the surface of the underlying jawbone. They have no roots and are attached to the edge of the jawbone by fibrous membrane e.g., fishes, amphibians and some reptiles.
Pleurodont:
The teeth are attached to the inner-side of the jawbone. The tooth touches the bone only with the outer surface of its root. In acrodont and pleurodont types of dentition, there are no roots, and nerves and blood vessels do not enter the pulp cavity at the base, e.g., Necturus (Amphibia) and some reptiles.
According to the Succession or Replace¬ment of Teeth:
Aortic arches in vertebrates
Vertebrates generally have a ventral aorta and dorsal aorta, with six pairs of aortic arches that branch off and pass through gill arches. In fishes, the six pairs of arches each pass blood through the gills. Over time, some arches reduce or disappear, with sharks having five pairs and most fish having four functional pairs. In land vertebrates like reptiles, amphibians, birds and mammals, the number of arches reduces further to three pairs or less as lungs replace gills and the circulatory system evolves to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
succession of kidneys in a vertebrate series
1. Kidneys evolve from the primitive archinephros to the pronephros, mesonephros, and finally the metanephros, which is the definitive kidney of amniotes.
2. The pronephros is the first to develop and is functional only in embryonic or larval stages. The mesonephros follows and is functional in embryos and adults of some species.
3. The metanephros is the adult kidney of amniotes and shows greater complexity with millions of nephrons and additional structures like loops of Henle in mammals.
Flight adaptations in birds
Birds have numerous anatomical and morphological adaptations for flight. Their bodies are lightweight yet strong, with hollow bones connected to an advanced respiratory system. Many bones are fused to provide rigidity. Their powerful flight muscles are anchored to a keeled sternum. Other adaptations include short tails for steering, highly mobile necks, and modified forelimbs that serve as wings providing lift through flapping powered by strong pectoral muscles. These numerous adaptations allow birds to harness the principles of aerodynamics and achieve sustained flight.
Metamorphosis in Amphibians
Amphibian metamorphosis is initiated by thyroid hormones that travel through the bloodstream and induce changes in organs and tissues. This includes the growth of adult structures like limbs, remodeling of larval structures like the intestine and nervous system, and programmed cell death of larval structures like gills and tail. The levels of thyroid hormones regulate the timing and progression of metamorphosis through different stages from pre-metamorphosis to metamorphic climax. While some tissues proliferate and differentiate in response to thyroid hormones, other tissues are instructed to degenerate, allowing the transition from aquatic larva to terrestrial adult.
Digestive system of vertebrates
1. The document describes the digestive system of vertebrates, including the development and anatomy of key structures like the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver and gallbladder.
2. It notes that the digestive tract develops from the embryonic archenteron and surrounding mesoderm. Structures vary between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates.
3. Accessory organs like the tongue, teeth and salivary glands are described. The stomach and intestines show diversity between species related to diet. The liver and gallbladder function to produce and store bile.
Water vascular system of star fish
he water vascular system is a modified part of the coelom.
It is otherwise called the ambulacral system.
Metamorphosis-amphibians, hormonal control
Metamorphosis in amphibians involves dramatic changes initiated by thyroid hormones that transform aquatic larvae into terrestrial adults. These changes include remodeling of tissues and organs like development of lungs and loss of gills to transition from aquatic to terrestrial respiration. Changes in skin, digestive system and other organs prepare the amphibian for life on land. The process is controlled by thyroid hormones which activate receptors that turn on genes driving tissue remodeling and metamorphosis.
vittelogenesis.pptx
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
Visceral arches
Visceral arches are pieces of cartilage or bone that support the pharyngeal region in vertebrates and help attach the jaws to the skull. There are typically 7 pairs of visceral arches that are modified differently in vertebrate groups depending on the presence of gills and jaw suspension type. Cyclostomes lack identifiable typical cartilage patterns and have a fused branchial basket to support gills. Elasmobranchs have a full set of visceral arches and 3 unpaired branchial cartilages. Bony fishes have modifications for jaw movement and suspension with a reduced last arch. Amphibians have 6 arches as larvae with the last 3 bearing gills, and modifications form their air breathing
Lateral line system
Origin of the Lateral Line System
Lateral line is a canal along the side of a fish containing pores that open into tubes supplied with sense organs sensitive to low vibrations.
Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. He explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system in detecting water movement.
Through the evidences from fossils, embryology and comparative anatomy, Denison (1966) established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system. He found a distinct relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line in Osteotraci.
The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain.
The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci (ostracoderm).
It is also present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians.
As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates .
In transverse sections also , it is very difficult to differentiate the pore canal system from a lateral line canal.
Structure of the Lateral Line System
Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line.
Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells.
Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 μm) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 μm).
The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands.
Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells.
At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers.
Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium.
The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast.
Scale of fishes
Scales are an important part of the exoskeleton of most fish species. There are several different types of scales that evolved over time, including placoid, cycloid, ctenoid, cosmoid, and ganoid scales. Placoid scales are found in sharks and resemble teeth, while cycloid and ctenoid scales are thin and circular or spiny and found in bony fish. Scales provide protection and can be used to determine age and growth rates in fish, as well as provide information about extinct fish species and the diets of predatory animals.
Flight adaptation and Mechanism Of Flight in Birds.
This document discusses flight adaptations and the mechanism of flight in birds. It describes the key morphological adaptations birds have developed for flight including their streamlined bodies, lightweight feathers, modified forelimbs that form wings, and other adaptations. It also discusses important anatomical modifications such as their lightweight skeletons, strong breast muscles, and efficient respiratory and circulatory systems. Finally, it explains how birds generate lift through their airfoils and use a downward power stroke and upward recovery stroke of their wings to fly through flapping.
Parental care in fishes By TANZEEBA AMIN
Parental care is an important behavior for perpetuating fish species. Many fish species care for their eggs and young in various ways. Some fish build different types of nests, such as circular, basin-shaped, or barrel-shaped nests to lay and care for eggs. Other fish deposit eggs in suitable locations or carry them in their mouths or pouches. Some fish are viviparous. Parental care benefits offspring survival but increases costs to parents. There is great diversity in parental care strategies among fish species.
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Skull typpes
This document summarizes the different types of skulls found in reptiles:
- Anapsid skulls, found in primitive reptiles and turtles, have no temporal fenestrae.
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This document discusses metamorphosis in insects. It defines metamorphosis as the transformation of insects' body structures, shapes and functions at different life stages. There are four main types of metamorphosis: ametabolous (little change), hemimetabolous (incomplete change through egg, nymph and adult stages), paurometabolous (gradual change through these stages), and holometabolous (complete change through egg, larva, pupa and adult stages). Holometabolous insects undergo the most dramatic changes in form, with the larval form bearing no resemblance to the adult.
Frog1
Frogs undergo a process called metamorphosis as they develop from tadpoles to adult frogs. During metamorphosis, tadpoles first grow back legs, then front legs, as their tails shrink and eyes form. They also change their diet from herbivorous to carnivorous or omnivorous. Frog reproduction begins with the male and female frog laying 200-2000 eggs in water, which the male then fertilizes and covers in a protective fluid. The eggs hatch into tadpoles over 10 weeks as they undergo metamorphosis from aquatic to terrestrial form.
Metamorphosis
Metamorphosis refers to the process of physical transformation an animal undergoes after birth or hatching. There are three main types of metamorphosis: ametabolous (little change), hemimetabolous (simple/partial change), and holometabolous (complete change). Holometabolous insects undergo the most dramatic transformation, changing from an egg to a larva, then a pupa, and finally an adult. This allows insects to exploit different food sources and habitats at each life stage, reducing competition within species.
insect 1).pptx
This document discusses metamorphosis in insects. It describes four types of metamorphosis: ametabolous (little change from immature to adult), gradual (changes occur gradually through nymph stages as in grasshoppers), complete (distinct egg/larva/pupa/adult stages as in butterflies), and incomplete (three stages of egg/nymph/adult as in dragonflies). Complete metamorphosis involves a dramatic transformation controlled by the hormones juvenile hormone and ecdysone. These hormones regulate molting and development between life stages and sexual maturity in insects.
Metamorphosis in insects ppt.pptx
Insect metamorphosis involves dramatic changes in body structure and involves different life stages. Complete metamorphosis has stages of larva, pupa, and adult. Incomplete metamorphosis has gradual changes through nymph stages. Hormones like ecdysone and juvenile hormone regulate metamorphosis through gene expression changes. Imaginal discs differentiate during the pupal stage to form adult structures like wings and legs.
metamorphosis_in_insect_presentation.pdf
Metamorphosis in insects involves changes from the larval stage to the adult stage. There are two main types: hemimetabolous insects which develop gradually through nymph stages resembling adults, and holometabolous insects which develop through distinct egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages. Larvae molt and grow before pupating. The pupa stage involves remodeling into the adult form. Eclosion occurs when the adult emerges from the pupal case. Metamorphosis and molting are controlled by hormones including juvenile hormone and ecdysteroids which regulate development and transition between stages.
Metamorphosis in insects
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Metamorphosis in insects ,Its types (Mubaika seher)
This document discusses metamorphosis in insects. It describes the different types of metamorphosis including ametabolous, gradual, and complete. Ametabolous insects undergo little change from immature to adult. Gradually metamorphosing insects like grasshoppers change gradually through nymph stages. Completely metamorphosing insects like butterflies undergo a larva, pupa, and adult stage with dramatic changes between each. Hormones like juvenile hormone and ecdysone control the molting and developmental processes during an insect's lifecycle.
How young animals grow up?
Young animals grow up
If the zygote can grow in and interact with a suitable environment, it contains all the information required to create a new organism. It stands to reason that some aspects of embryology must be considered when studying the development of behaviour. For instance, the way the nervous system's fundamental structure is built, but we must go much further than this.
Young animals grow up
It is entirely possible to argue that in some animals, behavioural development continues throughout life. Long after an animal is independent, its behaviour may still change. Learning could therefore be seen as a form of development, and young animals occasionally learn a lot as they grow. But in this section, we'll focus on other behavioural changes that frequently occur early in life, often quickly and dramatically.
It is important to understand that young animals must always be fully functional creatures capable of acting appropriately in their own worlds. They cannot simply be incomplete creatures or inadequate stages on the path to adulthood.
Some animals are protected during their early development by an eggshell or uterus or by watchful parents, but others are free-living and must care for themselves completely. Young animals may develop into miniature adults as they grow in size over time, but in order to keep up, their behavioural responses must also adapt.
Although young cuttlefish (Sepia) start out and continue to be carnivores, at first, they can only kill tiny crustacea that are disregarded as prey once the cuttlefish has grown. As they grow closer to adult size, they move on to food that is bigger and bigger, which requires a change in the behaviour patterns used to find and catch prey.
Even more drastic behavioural and morphological changes may occur in some cases because some young animals live entirely different lives than do adults. Tadpoles are herbivores that swim and breathe like fish before changing into land-dwelling carnivorous frogs or toads.
Eristalis tenax, an aquatic filter-feeding rat-tailed maggot that breathes through a long snorkel tube at its back, transforms into a flower-feeding hoverfly (see Fig. 2). Young and adult require almost entirely different behavioural repertoires for these life histories.
Rat-tailed maggot | Flower-feeding hoverfly
These alterations mean that development frequently has to produce patterns that only function for a portion of an animal's life before disappearing. The specific coordinated movements that cockroaches use to emerge from their individual eggshells as well as the protective case that bundles a group of eggs together were both described by Provine in 1976. These movements, which are only observed on this one occasion, consist of a series of reversed waves of contraction along the body from the tail to the head.
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Micro macro and mega evolution
KEY POINTS
Evolution is a slow and gradual STEP BY STEP process.
Irreversible transformations takes place from simple to complex or advanced occurring in time and space.
Darwin assumed that if evolution is gradual , then there should be a record in fossils of small incremental change within a species. But in many cases, Darwin, and scientists today, are unable to find most of these intermediate forms.
Mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection are the 5 key mechanisms responsible for evolution.
Variation, inheritance, selection and time are the 4 principles that are considered as the components of the evolutionary mechanism of natural selection.
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This document discusses different types of metamorphosis in insects and other invertebrates. It describes six types of metamorphosis - ametabola, metabola, paurometabola, hemimetabola, holometabola, and polymetabola. Holometabola involves a complete transformation through four stages - egg, larva, pupa, and adult. This type of complete metamorphosis is best exemplified by the butterfly, which goes through distinct egg, larva, pupa, and adult forms during its life cycle. Grasshoppers also undergo metamorphosis, starting as eggs and progressing through nymph and adult stages.
Life cycle of mud crab
1) Mud crabs undergo a complex life cycle beginning as larvae called zoea, which go through five zoeal stages and one megalopal stage before metamorphosing into juvenile crabs.
2) As juveniles, they migrate to estuaries where they mature over 18-24 months. Mature males and females mate, after which the females migrate offshore to spawn millions of eggs.
3) The eggs hatch into zoea larvae, restarting the cycle, with spawning occurring year-round in the tropics and during late spring to mid-autumn in subtropical and warm temperate areas.
Post embryonic development of insects and metamorphosis
insect development, embryonic development,metamorphosis , egg , structure of hatching stimulus ,larval forms of insects,molting, hypermetamorphosis, heterometamorphosis
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This document discusses the classification and characteristics of different algal groups, including:
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The evolution of new species of large organisms is sometimes termed .pdf
The evolution of new species of large organisms is sometimes termed “macroevolution,” to
distinguish it from evolution in bacteria, which happens so frequently and quickly that it is
unremarkable. The problem with really understanding macroevolution is that it is slow. The good
thing is that Darwin developed the theory over 150 years ago, so we’ve had long enough to
observe some pretty remarkable cases of macroevolution. Write a short case study (one
paragraph is probably enough – but write it out, don’t cut-and-paste) describing a recent example
of macroevolution that has been documented scientifically. Do not describe changes in bacteria
for this question.
Solution
Macroevolution is a slow and gradual process and it is less understood in comparison with
microevolution. Macroevolution is regarded as Grand-scale evolution as it paved the way for the
creation of new species like eukaryotes from prokaryotes, adaptive radiation of mammals or we
can even consider the extinction of dinosaurs.
The macroevolution evidences will be gained either from fossils or by comparing the living
organisms. Examples are macroevolution are evolution of flowering plants from seed plants,
birds evolving from dinosaurs, four legs or tetrapod animals evolving from fish or the origin of
whales also considered as one of the best example for macroevolution and is well documented.
Specializations of migrant fishes and birds to different habitats can be discussed under adaptive
radiation and is well documented under macroevolution. Examples for intraspecific
macroevolution is trophic specializations shown by finches and cichlid fishes. Under
macroevolution scientists has documented the diversity of taxa of a variety of organisms like
salamanders, fishes, bees, butterflies etc.
The flowering plants are known to show the intra specific macroevolution with respect to the
characters like possession of a corolla tube or an inferior ovary or hormonal changes etc..
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
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Chapter 4
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Chapter 6
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2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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Metamorphosis
- 1. Presentation by :- Danish Salmani M.Sc.III Dearment of zoology Kumaun univesity Nainital.
- 3. Metamorphosis? Metamorphosis is a type of process in which transformation of a larva into an adult is termed as metamorphosis. Or Metamorphosis is a post –embryonic extension of the development potential and involves dramatic changes in habitat , morpholology, physiology,and behaviour,of larva so that it is transformed in to the adult having entirely different habitat and structure.
- 4. Occurrence of Metamorphosis. Metamorphosis occur in most metazoan phyla ,beginning with Porrifera and ends with amphibia .Animals with indirect development exhibit a variety of larvae which undergo metamorphsis . The processs of metamorphosis in different animals groups differ both in the nature of transformations and in mode of causation of whole sequences ,so that it is not possible to describe their metamorphism in common terms.
- 5. Two Basic Types Of Metamorpsis 1. Retrogressive Metamorphosis:-It occurs in ascidians where only the larvae posses chordate feature ,the adult ,adapted to a sessile existence , loss all larval locomotory organs and thereby giveup all the traces of chordate relationship. 2. Progressive Metamorphosis:- It occurs in amphibians and insect and include changes of simple larval organization into more complexorganization of the adult.
- 8. Metamorphosis In Amphibians. Amphibians furnish the best examples of metamorphosis in vertebrates. In them ,metamorphosis in corporates following are as:- Ecological Metamorphic changes Morphological Metamorphic changes 1. Progressive 2. Retrogressive 3. Organs which exist in both larva and adult. Physiological and Biochemical metamorphic changes
- 11. Hormonal control of Amphibian Metamorphosis.
- 14. Reference:- Metamorphosis in amphibians :- Developmental biology book. By Shastry and Shukla.
- 15. Thanks!!!