- The document describes a Mechanical Metallurgy course including general information, assessment, textbooks, and tentative dates.
- Key topics covered in the course include stress and strain relationships, elasticity theory, plastic deformation, dislocation theory, strengthening mechanisms, and fracture.
- Assessment includes partial and final exams, quizzes, attendance, and participation.
This document discusses statically indeterminate structures and thermal stresses. It begins by defining statically indeterminate structures as those where the number of unknowns is greater than the number of equilibrium equations, requiring additional equations. It provides examples of compound bars made of two materials, where the deformations are equal and stresses can be calculated. It also discusses temperature stresses that develop when a material is prevented from expanding or contracting freely due to a temperature change. The temperature strain and stress formulas are provided. Several example problems are then solved to calculate stresses, deformations and loads for statically indeterminate structures and those subjected to temperature changes.
1) The document discusses stresses in thin and thick cylinders, including circumferential (hoop), longitudinal, and radial stresses. It also covers principal stresses.
2) Formulas are provided for calculating wall thickness based on tangential stress in thin cylinders, and Lame's equation is introduced for thick cylinders.
3) Additional concepts covered include stresses in spherical vessels, pre-stressing techniques like autofrettage to increase pressure capacity, and stresses in cylinders under external pressure or combined internal and shrink pressures.
This document provides an overview of topics related to simple stresses and strains, including:
- Types of stresses and strains such as tensile, compressive, direct stress, and direct strain.
- Hooke's law and how stress is proportional to strain below the material's yield point.
- Stress-strain diagrams and key points such as the elastic region, yield point, and fracture point.
- Definitions of terms like working stress, factor of safety, Poisson's ratio, and elastic moduli.
- Examples of problems calculating stresses, strains, extensions, and deformations of simple structural members under various loads.
The document provides an overview of mechanics of materials concepts related to torsion, including:
- Torsion causes shearing stresses that vary linearly from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface for circular shafts.
- Torsion can cause both shearing stresses and normal stresses depending on the orientation of the material element.
- Ductile materials fail in shear while brittle materials fail in tension when subjected to torsion.
- The angle of twist is proportional to the applied torque, material properties, and shaft length based on elastic torsion formulas.
- Stress concentrations can occur due to geometric discontinuities and influence the maximum shearing stress.
Solution manual for mechanics of materials 10th edition hibbeler samplezammok
The document describes a problem involving two hemispherical shells that are pressed together.
1) The required torque to initiate rotation between the shells is 18.2 kip-ft due to overcoming friction.
2) The required vertical force to just pull the shells apart is 18.1 kip in order to overcome the normal force between the shells.
3) The document calculates the normal pressure, friction force, required torque, and required vertical force in detail.
The document contains 8 questions related to determining the diameter of solid and hollow shafts based on transmitted power, torque, maximum shear stress, and angle of twist specifications. The questions involve calculating shaft diameters, transmitted torque values, shear stresses, and comparing weights of solid versus hollow shaft designs.
This document provides an introduction to strength of materials, including concepts of stress, strain, Hooke's law, stress-strain relationships, elastic constants, and factors of safety. It defines key terms like stress, strain, elastic limit, modulus of elasticity, and ductile and brittle material behavior. Examples of stress and strain calculations are provided for basic structural elements like rods, bars, and composite structures. The document also covers compound bars, principle of superposition, and effects of temperature changes.
This document discusses statically indeterminate structures and thermal stresses. It begins by defining statically indeterminate structures as those where the number of unknowns is greater than the number of equilibrium equations, requiring additional equations. It provides examples of compound bars made of two materials, where the deformations are equal and stresses can be calculated. It also discusses temperature stresses that develop when a material is prevented from expanding or contracting freely due to a temperature change. The temperature strain and stress formulas are provided. Several example problems are then solved to calculate stresses, deformations and loads for statically indeterminate structures and those subjected to temperature changes.
1) The document discusses stresses in thin and thick cylinders, including circumferential (hoop), longitudinal, and radial stresses. It also covers principal stresses.
2) Formulas are provided for calculating wall thickness based on tangential stress in thin cylinders, and Lame's equation is introduced for thick cylinders.
3) Additional concepts covered include stresses in spherical vessels, pre-stressing techniques like autofrettage to increase pressure capacity, and stresses in cylinders under external pressure or combined internal and shrink pressures.
This document provides an overview of topics related to simple stresses and strains, including:
- Types of stresses and strains such as tensile, compressive, direct stress, and direct strain.
- Hooke's law and how stress is proportional to strain below the material's yield point.
- Stress-strain diagrams and key points such as the elastic region, yield point, and fracture point.
- Definitions of terms like working stress, factor of safety, Poisson's ratio, and elastic moduli.
- Examples of problems calculating stresses, strains, extensions, and deformations of simple structural members under various loads.
The document provides an overview of mechanics of materials concepts related to torsion, including:
- Torsion causes shearing stresses that vary linearly from zero at the center to a maximum at the surface for circular shafts.
- Torsion can cause both shearing stresses and normal stresses depending on the orientation of the material element.
- Ductile materials fail in shear while brittle materials fail in tension when subjected to torsion.
- The angle of twist is proportional to the applied torque, material properties, and shaft length based on elastic torsion formulas.
- Stress concentrations can occur due to geometric discontinuities and influence the maximum shearing stress.
Solution manual for mechanics of materials 10th edition hibbeler samplezammok
The document describes a problem involving two hemispherical shells that are pressed together.
1) The required torque to initiate rotation between the shells is 18.2 kip-ft due to overcoming friction.
2) The required vertical force to just pull the shells apart is 18.1 kip in order to overcome the normal force between the shells.
3) The document calculates the normal pressure, friction force, required torque, and required vertical force in detail.
The document contains 8 questions related to determining the diameter of solid and hollow shafts based on transmitted power, torque, maximum shear stress, and angle of twist specifications. The questions involve calculating shaft diameters, transmitted torque values, shear stresses, and comparing weights of solid versus hollow shaft designs.
This document provides an introduction to strength of materials, including concepts of stress, strain, Hooke's law, stress-strain relationships, elastic constants, and factors of safety. It defines key terms like stress, strain, elastic limit, modulus of elasticity, and ductile and brittle material behavior. Examples of stress and strain calculations are provided for basic structural elements like rods, bars, and composite structures. The document also covers compound bars, principle of superposition, and effects of temperature changes.
1) Lateral loads on a beam cause it to bend into a deflection curve. Pure bending occurs when the bending moment is constant, resulting in zero shear force. Non-uniform bending happens when the bending moment is variable, with non-zero shear force.
2) The radius of curvature and curvature of a beam are defined based on the deflection curve. Longitudinal strains in a beam vary linearly with distance from the neutral axis, causing elongation on one side and shortening on the other.
3) For a simply supported beam bent into a circular arc, the example calculates the radius of curvature, curvature, and midpoint deflection based on the given bottom strain. The normal stress is directly proportional to
This document provides information about the Strength of Materials CIE 102 course for first year B.E. degree students. It includes a list of 10 topics that will be covered in the course, such as simple stress and strain, shearing force and bending moment, and stability of columns. It also lists several reference books for the course and provides an overview of concepts that will be discussed in the first chapter, including stress, strain, stress-strain diagrams, and ductile vs brittle materials.
This document provides an overview of torsion and power transmission in shafts. It defines the torsion equation that relates torque, shear stress, polar second moment of area, and angle of twist. Formulas are derived for solid and hollow circular shafts. Examples are provided to calculate shear stress, angle of twist, and maximum torque or power given various shaft properties and limitations. The document also relates mechanical power to torque and rotational speed.
Bending Stresses are important in the design of beams from strength point of view. The present source gives an idea on theory and problems in bending stresses.
This document discusses mechanics of solids, specifically torsion and bending moment. It begins with an overview and objectives of Module II which covers torsion of circular elastic and inelastic bars, as well as axial force, shear force, and bending moment diagrams. It then provides explanations, equations, and examples relating to torsion, including assumptions in torsion theory, the torsion equation, torsional rigidity, power transmission in torsion, and example problems calculating torque and shaft diameters. It also discusses statically indeterminate shafts and torsion of inelastic circular bars.
This document provides an overview of stresses and deformations in thick-walled cylinders. It begins with introducing the topic and presenting the basic relations used to analyze thick cylinders under internal and external pressures. It then derives the stress components for closed-end and open cylinders. Expressions are also developed for the stress components and radial displacement of a closed cylinder under constant temperature. Finally, an example problem is worked out to determine the stresses, maximum shear stress, and change in diameter for a hollow aluminum cylinder under internal pressure.
This document provides an introduction to statics and static equilibrium for particles. It defines key terms like particles, equilibrium, and free-body diagrams. It explains that a particle is in equilibrium if the net force acting on it is zero. Free-body diagrams show all forces acting on a particle and are used to apply the equations of equilibrium to solve problems. Examples are provided of drawing free-body diagrams and using them to determine unknown forces on mechanical components in static equilibrium.
This document discusses calculating displacement of joints in a truss due to changes in member length from temperature changes and fabrication errors. It provides an equation to calculate displacement as the sum of the product of internal forces and length changes. As an example, it calculates the vertical displacement of joint H in a sample truss due to increased temperatures in two members and fabrication errors in shortening one member and elongating another. The total calculated displacement is 1.92 mm.
1. The document provides engineering formulas and equations for statistics, mechanics, electricity, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, structural analysis, and simple machines.
2. Key formulas include those for mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and probability. Mechanics formulas include those for force, torque, energy, power, and kinematics.
3. Formulas are also provided for stress, strain, modulus of elasticity, beam deflection, truss analysis, and mechanical advantage of simple machines like levers, inclined planes, and gears.
Thermal stresses and strains occur when temperature changes cause materials to expand or contract. Thermal strain is proportional to the temperature change. Uneven heating can induce stresses if expansion is constrained. Thermal stresses are analyzed by considering both the thermal strain and any mechanical stresses from applied loads. Bars with non-uniform cross sections experience varying thermal stresses due to differences in expansion rates. Composite bars made of different materials also experience thermal stresses at their interface as the materials expand unequally with temperature changes. Thermal stresses can be calculated using equations that relate stress, strain, temperature change, elastic modulus, and coefficients of thermal expansion for the materials.
This document gives the class notes of Unit 2 stresses in composite sections. Subject: Mechanics of materials.
Syllabus contest is as per VTU, Belagavi, India.
Notes Compiled By: Hareesha N Gowda, Assistant Professor, DSCE, Bengaluru-78.
This document discusses the stress function approach for solving two-dimensional elasticity problems. It begins by presenting the general equations of elasticity, including stress-strain relationships, strain-displacement equations, and equilibrium equations. It then introduces the stress function method proposed by Airy, where a single function of space coordinates is assumed that satisfies all the elasticity equations. The key steps are: (1) choosing a stress function, (2) confirming it is biharmonic, (3) deriving stresses from its derivatives, (4) using boundary conditions to determine the function, (5) deriving strains, and (6) displacements. Examples of polynomial stress functions are also provided.
This document discusses finite element analysis and nonlinear finite element analysis. It introduces the finite element method and how it approximates solutions by dividing them into discrete elements. It explains that higher order polynomials and more nodes/elements increase accuracy. The document distinguishes between linear and nonlinear problems, with nonlinear problems not obeying Hooke's law. It lists common finite element methods for nonlinear mechanics like updated Lagrangian formulations. Finally, it discusses solution algorithms for nonlinear problems like Newton's method and line searches.
Lecture 4 3 d stress tensor and equilibrium equationsDeepak Agarwal
* Shear stress, τ = 50 N/mm2
* Shear modulus, C = 8x104 N/mm2
* Strain energy per unit volume = τ2/2C
= (50)2 / 2(8x104)
= 0.3125 J/mm3
Therefore, the local strain energy per unit volume stored in the material due to shear stress is 0.3125 J/mm3.
This document summarizes a seminar topic on the theory of elasticity. It discusses key concepts in elasticity including external forces, stresses, strains, displacements, assumptions of elasticity theory. It provides examples of plane stress and plane strain conditions. The purpose of elasticity theory is to analyze stresses and displacements in elastic solids and structures. Applications include designing mechanical parts and calculating stresses in beams.
1. The document defines static load, failure, material strength properties including yield strength and ultimate strength in tension and compression.
2. It describes ductile materials as deforming significantly before fracturing, while brittle materials yield very little before fracturing and have similar yield and ultimate strengths.
3. The maximum shear stress theory and distortion energy theory are introduced as failure theories used in design based on yield strength and ultimate strength respectively. Safety factors are used to avoid failure based on these theories.
Chapter 3 linear wave theory and wave propagationMohsin Siddique
Small amplitude wave theory provides a mathematical description of periodic progressive waves using linear assumptions. It assumes wave amplitude is small compared to wavelength and depth. The key equations derived are the wave dispersion relationship and expressions for water particle velocity, acceleration, and pressure as functions of depth and phase. Wave energy is calculated as the sum of kinetic and potential energy. Wave power is the rate at which wave energy is transmitted shoreward and varies with depth from 0.5 in deep water to 1.0 in shallow water. Wave characteristics like height, length, and celerity change as waves propagate into shallower depths based on conservation of energy.
The bulk modulus measures a substance's resistance to uniform compression and is defined as the pressure increase needed to cause a given relative decrease in volume. It has a base unit of Pascal. For example, reducing an iron cannon ball's volume by 0.5% requires increasing the pressure by 0.8 GPa if the bulk modulus is 160 GPa. The bulk modulus is larger for solids than liquids and largest for gases, making solids the least compressible and gases the most compressible.
Ch08 10 combined loads & transformationsDario Ch
This document contains a table of contents for a textbook on mechanical engineering. The table of contents lists 14 chapters, beginning with "Stress" and ending with "Buckling of Columns". Each chapter is numbered and given a page range. The document provides an outline of the topics that will be covered in the textbook.
This chapter provides an introduction to mechanical metallurgy, including the behavior of metals under stress and strain. It discusses key concepts such as elastic and plastic deformation, ductile versus brittle behavior, and the types of failures that can occur in metals. The objectives are to describe the stress-strain response of metals and the defect mechanisms that lead to flow and fracture. Factors influencing failure like temperature, loading conditions, and material properties are also addressed.
The document provides solutions to example problems in a chapter on metal forming mechanics and metallurgy. It determines principal stresses for a given stress state. It then solves additional examples involving determining stresses in rods, tubes, and sheets under various loading conditions. The solutions make use of stress-strain relationships and failure criteria like Tresca and von Mises to determine stresses and strains.
1) Lateral loads on a beam cause it to bend into a deflection curve. Pure bending occurs when the bending moment is constant, resulting in zero shear force. Non-uniform bending happens when the bending moment is variable, with non-zero shear force.
2) The radius of curvature and curvature of a beam are defined based on the deflection curve. Longitudinal strains in a beam vary linearly with distance from the neutral axis, causing elongation on one side and shortening on the other.
3) For a simply supported beam bent into a circular arc, the example calculates the radius of curvature, curvature, and midpoint deflection based on the given bottom strain. The normal stress is directly proportional to
This document provides information about the Strength of Materials CIE 102 course for first year B.E. degree students. It includes a list of 10 topics that will be covered in the course, such as simple stress and strain, shearing force and bending moment, and stability of columns. It also lists several reference books for the course and provides an overview of concepts that will be discussed in the first chapter, including stress, strain, stress-strain diagrams, and ductile vs brittle materials.
This document provides an overview of torsion and power transmission in shafts. It defines the torsion equation that relates torque, shear stress, polar second moment of area, and angle of twist. Formulas are derived for solid and hollow circular shafts. Examples are provided to calculate shear stress, angle of twist, and maximum torque or power given various shaft properties and limitations. The document also relates mechanical power to torque and rotational speed.
Bending Stresses are important in the design of beams from strength point of view. The present source gives an idea on theory and problems in bending stresses.
This document discusses mechanics of solids, specifically torsion and bending moment. It begins with an overview and objectives of Module II which covers torsion of circular elastic and inelastic bars, as well as axial force, shear force, and bending moment diagrams. It then provides explanations, equations, and examples relating to torsion, including assumptions in torsion theory, the torsion equation, torsional rigidity, power transmission in torsion, and example problems calculating torque and shaft diameters. It also discusses statically indeterminate shafts and torsion of inelastic circular bars.
This document provides an overview of stresses and deformations in thick-walled cylinders. It begins with introducing the topic and presenting the basic relations used to analyze thick cylinders under internal and external pressures. It then derives the stress components for closed-end and open cylinders. Expressions are also developed for the stress components and radial displacement of a closed cylinder under constant temperature. Finally, an example problem is worked out to determine the stresses, maximum shear stress, and change in diameter for a hollow aluminum cylinder under internal pressure.
This document provides an introduction to statics and static equilibrium for particles. It defines key terms like particles, equilibrium, and free-body diagrams. It explains that a particle is in equilibrium if the net force acting on it is zero. Free-body diagrams show all forces acting on a particle and are used to apply the equations of equilibrium to solve problems. Examples are provided of drawing free-body diagrams and using them to determine unknown forces on mechanical components in static equilibrium.
This document discusses calculating displacement of joints in a truss due to changes in member length from temperature changes and fabrication errors. It provides an equation to calculate displacement as the sum of the product of internal forces and length changes. As an example, it calculates the vertical displacement of joint H in a sample truss due to increased temperatures in two members and fabrication errors in shortening one member and elongating another. The total calculated displacement is 1.92 mm.
1. The document provides engineering formulas and equations for statistics, mechanics, electricity, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, structural analysis, and simple machines.
2. Key formulas include those for mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and probability. Mechanics formulas include those for force, torque, energy, power, and kinematics.
3. Formulas are also provided for stress, strain, modulus of elasticity, beam deflection, truss analysis, and mechanical advantage of simple machines like levers, inclined planes, and gears.
Thermal stresses and strains occur when temperature changes cause materials to expand or contract. Thermal strain is proportional to the temperature change. Uneven heating can induce stresses if expansion is constrained. Thermal stresses are analyzed by considering both the thermal strain and any mechanical stresses from applied loads. Bars with non-uniform cross sections experience varying thermal stresses due to differences in expansion rates. Composite bars made of different materials also experience thermal stresses at their interface as the materials expand unequally with temperature changes. Thermal stresses can be calculated using equations that relate stress, strain, temperature change, elastic modulus, and coefficients of thermal expansion for the materials.
This document gives the class notes of Unit 2 stresses in composite sections. Subject: Mechanics of materials.
Syllabus contest is as per VTU, Belagavi, India.
Notes Compiled By: Hareesha N Gowda, Assistant Professor, DSCE, Bengaluru-78.
This document discusses the stress function approach for solving two-dimensional elasticity problems. It begins by presenting the general equations of elasticity, including stress-strain relationships, strain-displacement equations, and equilibrium equations. It then introduces the stress function method proposed by Airy, where a single function of space coordinates is assumed that satisfies all the elasticity equations. The key steps are: (1) choosing a stress function, (2) confirming it is biharmonic, (3) deriving stresses from its derivatives, (4) using boundary conditions to determine the function, (5) deriving strains, and (6) displacements. Examples of polynomial stress functions are also provided.
This document discusses finite element analysis and nonlinear finite element analysis. It introduces the finite element method and how it approximates solutions by dividing them into discrete elements. It explains that higher order polynomials and more nodes/elements increase accuracy. The document distinguishes between linear and nonlinear problems, with nonlinear problems not obeying Hooke's law. It lists common finite element methods for nonlinear mechanics like updated Lagrangian formulations. Finally, it discusses solution algorithms for nonlinear problems like Newton's method and line searches.
Lecture 4 3 d stress tensor and equilibrium equationsDeepak Agarwal
* Shear stress, τ = 50 N/mm2
* Shear modulus, C = 8x104 N/mm2
* Strain energy per unit volume = τ2/2C
= (50)2 / 2(8x104)
= 0.3125 J/mm3
Therefore, the local strain energy per unit volume stored in the material due to shear stress is 0.3125 J/mm3.
This document summarizes a seminar topic on the theory of elasticity. It discusses key concepts in elasticity including external forces, stresses, strains, displacements, assumptions of elasticity theory. It provides examples of plane stress and plane strain conditions. The purpose of elasticity theory is to analyze stresses and displacements in elastic solids and structures. Applications include designing mechanical parts and calculating stresses in beams.
1. The document defines static load, failure, material strength properties including yield strength and ultimate strength in tension and compression.
2. It describes ductile materials as deforming significantly before fracturing, while brittle materials yield very little before fracturing and have similar yield and ultimate strengths.
3. The maximum shear stress theory and distortion energy theory are introduced as failure theories used in design based on yield strength and ultimate strength respectively. Safety factors are used to avoid failure based on these theories.
Chapter 3 linear wave theory and wave propagationMohsin Siddique
Small amplitude wave theory provides a mathematical description of periodic progressive waves using linear assumptions. It assumes wave amplitude is small compared to wavelength and depth. The key equations derived are the wave dispersion relationship and expressions for water particle velocity, acceleration, and pressure as functions of depth and phase. Wave energy is calculated as the sum of kinetic and potential energy. Wave power is the rate at which wave energy is transmitted shoreward and varies with depth from 0.5 in deep water to 1.0 in shallow water. Wave characteristics like height, length, and celerity change as waves propagate into shallower depths based on conservation of energy.
The bulk modulus measures a substance's resistance to uniform compression and is defined as the pressure increase needed to cause a given relative decrease in volume. It has a base unit of Pascal. For example, reducing an iron cannon ball's volume by 0.5% requires increasing the pressure by 0.8 GPa if the bulk modulus is 160 GPa. The bulk modulus is larger for solids than liquids and largest for gases, making solids the least compressible and gases the most compressible.
Ch08 10 combined loads & transformationsDario Ch
This document contains a table of contents for a textbook on mechanical engineering. The table of contents lists 14 chapters, beginning with "Stress" and ending with "Buckling of Columns". Each chapter is numbered and given a page range. The document provides an outline of the topics that will be covered in the textbook.
This chapter provides an introduction to mechanical metallurgy, including the behavior of metals under stress and strain. It discusses key concepts such as elastic and plastic deformation, ductile versus brittle behavior, and the types of failures that can occur in metals. The objectives are to describe the stress-strain response of metals and the defect mechanisms that lead to flow and fracture. Factors influencing failure like temperature, loading conditions, and material properties are also addressed.
The document provides solutions to example problems in a chapter on metal forming mechanics and metallurgy. It determines principal stresses for a given stress state. It then solves additional examples involving determining stresses in rods, tubes, and sheets under various loading conditions. The solutions make use of stress-strain relationships and failure criteria like Tresca and von Mises to determine stresses and strains.
Introduction to Mechanical Metallurgy (Our course project)Rishabh Gupta
The document summarizes key concepts in materials science and engineering. It discusses:
1. The importance of selecting high quality materials for better product design and performance.
2. The four main components in materials science - processing, structure, properties, and performance - and how they interrelate.
3. The main classes of materials - metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, and elastomers - and some of their key characteristics.
4. Crystal structures of metals and how they are classified based on atomic packing efficiency. Factors that determine a material's density are also covered.
The document discusses the transformation of stress and strain under rotations of the coordinate axes. It introduces plane stress and strain states, and how the stress and strain components are transformed for different axis orientations. It describes Mohr's circle for representing the transformations graphically, and covers applications to analyzing stresses in thin-walled pressure vessels.
The document discusses constitutive relations in solids, specifically elasticity. It provides an overview of the constitutive equation, which relates stress and strain for a material. It describes different types of material behavior, including elastic and inelastic. It also discusses linear elastic solids and the stress-strain relationship. Plane elasticity problems are introduced, including plane stress and plane strain. Key concepts covered include Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, and the equations of elasticity for isotropic materials.
Este documento describe los detalles de un proyecto de construcción de una carretera. Explica los materiales que se usarán, como concreto y asfalto, el trazado de la carretera y los posibles impactos ambientales. También incluye un cronograma tentativo de la construcción y el presupuesto estimado para completar el proyecto.
strength of materials singer and pytel solution manual (chapter 9 )Ahmad Haydar
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
The document contains figures and tables from mechanics of materials textbooks. It includes figures showing: load classifications, sign conventions, beam supports, simply supported beams, Mohr's circle diagrams, stresses on curved members, and development of transverse shear stresses. It also includes tables listing beam cross sections and their maximum shear stresses.
This document gives the class notes of Unit 3 Compound stresses. Subject: Mechanics of materials.
Syllabus contest is as per VTU, Belagavi, India.
Notes Compiled By: Hareesha N Gowda, Assistant Professor, DSCE, Bengaluru-78.
This document contains solutions to problems involving the instability strain and necking behavior of materials under tension.
1) For a material loaded in tension where stress is related to strain by σ=Kεn, the instability strain occurs when n equals strain. The document also finds expressions for instability strain as a function of n for two different stress-strain relationships.
2) Other problems determine instability strain and pressure for thin-walled tubes undergoing internal pressurization. Expressions are derived for instability strain in terms of the stress exponent n.
3) The final problems consider the effect of non-uniform thickness on necking behavior and determine conditions required to limit thickness variations during necking.
The document provides solutions to problems involving determining stresses and strains in metal forming applications. Some key points:
1) It calculates principal stresses and strains for given stress/strain states.
2) It determines stresses in rods, tubes, and thin-walled pressure vessels under various loading conditions using stress/strain relationships.
3) It applies both Tresca and von Mises yield criteria to find yielding points for different materials under combinations of stresses.
1. The document discusses fatigue, which is structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading below its tensile strength.
2. It describes how fatigue occurs through repeated loading and unloading causing microscopic cracks, and how factors like stress concentration, material properties, and the environment affect fatigue life.
3. The document outlines an experiment to determine the fatigue life of aluminum specimens under different stress levels using a fatigue testing machine. Results are analyzed to find the safe stress level for 1 million reversals.
This chapter discusses dislocation theory and behavior in metals. Key topics covered include:
- Observation techniques for dislocations like etching and transmission electron microscopy
- Burgers vectors and dislocation loops that describe the geometry and movement of dislocations
- Dislocation behavior depends on the crystal structure, including dissociation in FCC into Shockley partials and easy cross-slip
- Dislocations interact through stress fields and forces, which influence deformation and strengthening mechanisms in metals
This document provides an overview of basic engineering theory concepts covered in 8 chapters:
1) Mechanics of Materials: Stress and Strain
2) Hooke's Law
3) Failure Criteria
4) Beams
5) Buckling
6) Dynamics
7) Fluid Mechanics
8) Heat Transfer
Each chapter introduces fundamental concepts and equations within the topic area.
Structural geology is the study of the architecture and geometry of the Earth's crust and the processes that have shaped it. It involves analyzing how rock bodies deform in response to tectonic stresses. Structural analysis generally involves descriptive, kinematic, and dynamic analysis. Descriptive analysis describes rock structures like folds and faults. Kinematic analysis evaluates strain and changes in shape and orientation of rocks. Dynamic analysis reconstructs the stresses that caused rock deformation and failure. Stresses in rocks can be tensile, compressive, or shear stresses. Stress is analyzed using concepts like the stress tensor, Mohr's circle diagrams, and the orientation of maximum shear stresses. The main sources of stress that drive deformation are the motions of tectonic
The document provides an overview of the history and classification of materials. It discusses the progression from the Stone Age to the Bronze and Iron Ages. Key materials discussed include metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors, biomaterials, and smart materials. The relationship between a material's structure, properties, processing and performance is also summarized.
This document summarizes the slope deflection method for analyzing statically indeterminate structures. It defines statically indeterminate structures as those where the equilibrium equations are insufficient to determine internal forces. The slope deflection method relates member end moments to end rotations and displacements using slope deflection equations. The analysis process involves expressing fixed end moments, developing member equations relating end moments to rotations/displacements, establishing joint equilibrium equations, solving the equations to find unknown rotations and displacements, and determining end moments. An example problem applies these steps to solve for end moments in a continuous beam using the slope deflection method.
Griffith proposed that brittle materials contain small cracks and flaws that concentrate stress enough to reach the theoretical strength at nominal stresses below theoretical values. For a crack to propagate, the decrease in elastic strain energy from crack growth must be equal to or greater than the increase in surface energy. Griffith established a criterion where the stress required for crack propagation is inversely proportional to the square root of the crack length. This theory provides an equation to calculate the maximum crack length possible without fracture given a material's surface energy, modulus of elasticity, and applied stress.
Griffith proposed that brittle materials contain fine cracks that concentrate stress below the theoretical strength, causing fracture. When a crack propagates, the new surface area requires energy from the released elastic strain energy of the material. Griffith established that a crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy is equal to or greater than the energy required to create the new surface. The stress intensity factor describes the stress near a crack tip and is used to predict crack propagation. Fracture toughness is the material property describing a material's resistance to crack propagation.
Taylor's Theorem for Matrix Functions and Pseudospectral Bounds on the Condit...Sam Relton
Discusses a generalization of Taylor's theorem to matrix functions followed by new upper bounds on their condition numbers.
The resulting algorithm is shown to approximate the condition number of the function A^t much faster than current alternatives. We would recommend using this algorithm first, reverting to other (slower) algorithms if a tighter bound is required.
Homotopy perturbation and elzaki transform for solving nonlinear partial diff...Alexander Decker
The document presents a combination of the homotopy perturbation method and Elzaki transform to solve nonlinear partial differential equations. The homotopy perturbation method is used to handle the nonlinear terms, while the Elzaki transform is applied to reformulate the equations in terms of transformed variables, obtaining a series solution via inverse transformation. The method is demonstrated to be effective for both homogeneous and non-homogeneous nonlinear partial differential equations. Key steps include using integration by parts to obtain Elzaki transforms of partial derivatives and defining a convex homotopy to reformulate the equations for the homotopy perturbation method.
11.homotopy perturbation and elzaki transform for solving nonlinear partial d...Alexander Decker
The document discusses using a combination of the homotopy perturbation method and Elzaki transform to solve nonlinear partial differential equations. It begins by introducing the homotopy perturbation method and Elzaki transform individually. It then presents the homotopy perturbation Elzaki transform method, which applies Elzaki transform to reformulate the problem before using homotopy perturbation method to obtain approximations of the solution as a series. Finally, it applies the new combined method to solve an example nonlinear partial differential equation.
This document introduces tensors through examples. It defines a vector as a rank 1 tensor and a matrix as a rank 2 tensor. It then provides an example of a rank 3 tensor. The document discusses how to define an inner product between tensors and provides examples using vectors and matrices. It also gives an example of how derivatives of a function can produce tensors of different ranks. Finally, it introduces the concept of decomposing matrices into their symmetric and antisymmetric parts.
Lesson 15: Exponential Growth and Decay (slides)Matthew Leingang
Many problems in nature are expressible in terms of a certain differential equation that has a solution in terms of exponential functions. We look at the equation in general and some fun applications, including radioactivity, cooling, and interest.
Many problems in nature are expressible in terms of a certain differential equation that has a solution in terms of exponential functions. We look at the equation in general and some fun applications, including radioactivity, cooling, and interest.
11.[104 111]analytical solution for telegraph equation by modified of sumudu ...Alexander Decker
1) The document presents a new integral transform method called the Elzaki transform to solve the general linear telegraph equation.
2) The Elzaki transform is used to obtain analytical solutions for the telegraph equation. Definitions and properties of the transform are provided.
3) Several examples are presented to demonstrate the method. Exact solutions to examples of the telegraph equation are obtained using the Elzaki transform.
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This document discusses first-order differential equations. It provides exercises related to modeling real-world phenomena using differential equations, including population growth, radioactive decay, learning rates, and exponential growth. It also covers equilibrium solutions and determining whether a solution is increasing or decreasing based on the sign of the derivative. Key concepts covered are modeling, equilibrium solutions, exponential functions, and interpreting solutions.
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[3] As an example application, it shows how to use the two methods together to solve a general nonlinear, non-homogeneous partial differential equation with initial conditions. The Elzaki transform is used to obtain an expression for the solution, then the projected differential transform decomposes the
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2. For elastic solids, stress is proportional to strain, following Hooke's law. The proportionality constant is the elastic modulus. Materials exhibit linear or non-linear elastic behavior.
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One of the most fascinating and remarkable formulas existing in mathematics is the Euler Formula. It was formulated in 1740, constituting the main factor to reason why humankind can advance in science and mathematics. Accordingly, this research will continue investigating the potentiality of the Euler Formula or "the magical number e." The goal of the present study is to further assess the Euler formula and several of its applications such as the compound interest problem, complex numbers, trigonometry, signals (electrical engineering), and Ordinary Differential Equations. To accomplish this goal, the Euler Formula will be entered into the MATLAB software to obtain several plots representing the above applications. The importance of this study in mathematics and engineering will be discussed, and a case study on a polluted lake will be formulated.
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* Use Newton’s Law of Cooling.
* Use logistic-growth models.
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* Model exponential growth and decay
* Use Newton's Law of Cooling
* Use logistic-growth models
* Choose an appropriate model for data
* Express an exponential model in base e
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2. Examples of first order differential equations are given to model exponential growth, exponential decay, and an RL circuit. Higher order differential equations are used to model falling objects and Newton's law of cooling.
3. The key applications covered are population growth, radioactive decay, free falling objects, heat transfer, and electric circuits. Solving the differential equations gives mathematical models relating variables like position, temperature, and current over time.
1. Mechanical Metallurgy
INME 6016
Pablo G. Caceres‐Valencia
Professor in Materials Science,
B.Sc., Ph.D. (UK)
2. GENERAL INFORMATION
Course Number INME 6016
Course Title Mechanical Metallurgy
Credit Hours 3 (Lecture: 3hours)
Instructor Dr. Pablo G. Caceres‐Valencia
Office Luchetti Building L‐212
Phone Extension 2358
Office Hours Mo and Wed 1:00pm to 5:00pm
e‐mail pcaceres@uprm.edu
pcaceres@me.uprm.edu
Web‐site http://academic.uprm.edu/pcaceres
3. Assessment
The course will be assessed in the following manner:
Partial Exam 30%
Final Exam 30%
Quizzes (3)* 33%
Attendance and Class Participation 7%
(*) A total of three quizzes will be performed.
(**) Class Attendance (after the second absence ‐ 1 point will be deducted for each non‐
authorized absence). The participation in class will be taken into account.
Attendance
Attendance and participation in the lectures are mandatory and will
be considered in the grading. Students should bring calculators,
rulers, pen and pencils to be used during the lectures. Students are
expected to keep up with the assigned reading and be prepared for
the pop‐quizzes or to answer questions on these readings during
lecture.
6. The Concept of Stress
Uniaxial tensile stress: A force F is applied perpendicular
to the area (A). Before the application of the force, the
cross section area was AO
F
Engineering stress or nominal stress: Force σ=
divided by the original area. A0
True stress: Force divided by the F
σT =
instantaneous area A
Engineering Strain or Nominal Strain: Change of l − l0 Δl
length divided by the original length ε= =
l0 l0
True Strain: The rate of instantaneous increase in d ⎛ ⎞
the instantaneous gauge length. εT = ∫ = ln ⎜
⎜
⎝
i
o
⎟
⎟
⎠
7. Relationship between engineering and true stress and strain
We will assume that the volume remains Ao o = Ai i
constant.
F F Ao F Ao
σT = = * = *
Ai Ai Ao Ao Ai
Ao Δl + Δl F
= i
= o
= + 1 = (1 + ε ) σT = (1+ ε )
Ai o o o Ao
εT = ∫
d ⎛
= ln ⎜
⎜
i
⎞
⎟
⎟
σ T = σ (1 + ε )
⎝ o ⎠
εT
⎛
= ln ⎜ o + Δ ⎞ ⎛
⎟ ⇒ ln ⎜ o
+
Δ ⎞
⎟ ε T = ln(1 + ε )
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ o ⎠ ⎝ o o ⎠
9. Hooke’s Law
When strains are small, most of materials are linear elastic.
Young’s modulus
Normal: σ = Ε ε σ
F ⋅ lo
Δl =
Ao ⋅ E
Springs: the spring rate E
F Ao ⋅ E
k= =
Δl lo
ε
10. Torsion Loading resulting from the twist of a shaft.
δθ r ⋅θ
γ θ ,Z = r⋅ ≅ Shear strain
δz l
δθ G ⋅ r ⋅θ
τθ ,z = G ⋅ γ θ ,z = G⋅r ⋅ ≅
δz l
G = Shear Modulus of Elasticity
Twist Moment or Torque
G ⋅θ
T = ∫ r ⋅τ θ , z ⋅ δA = ∫r
2
θ ,z ⋅ δA
A l A
G ⋅θ ⋅ J T ⋅l
T= or θ=
of Inertia A ∫
Area Polar Moment J = r 2 ⋅ δA l G⋅J
Angular spring rate:
T ⋅r T ⋅ ro J ⋅G
Thus: τθ ,z ≅ τ Max ≅ ka = =
T
J J θ l
11. Stress Components Normal Stresses σx, σy, σz
Shear Stresses τxy , τyx , τxz , τzx , τzy , τyz
From equilibrium principles:
τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx , τzy = τyz
Normal stress (σ) : the subscript identifies the
face on which the stress acts. Tension is positive
and compression is negative.
Shear stress (τ) : it has two subscripts. The first
subscript denotes the face on which the stress
acts. The second subscript denotes the direction
on that face. A shear stress is positive if it acts
on a positive face and positive direction or if it
acts in a negative face and negative direction.
12. Sign Conventions for Shear Stress and Strain
The Shear Stress will be
considered positive when a
pair of shear stress acting on
opposite sides of the element
produce a counterclockwise
(ccw) torque (couple).
A shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces
(or two negative faces) is reduced, and is negative if the angle is increased.
13. For static equilibrium τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx , τzy = τyz resulting in
Six independent scalar quantities. These six scalars can be arranged
in a 3x3 matrix, giving us a stress tensor.
⎡σ x τ yx τ zx ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ = σ ij = ⎢τ xy σ y τ zy ⎥
⎢τ xz τ yz σ z ⎥
⎣ ⎦
The sign convention for the stress elements is that a positive force on
a positive face or a negative force on a negative face is positive. All
others are negative.
The stress state is a second order tensor since it is a quantity
associated with two directions (two subscripts direction of the
surface normal and direction of the stress).
14. F2 Cube with a Face area Ao
⎡ F1 F3 ⎤
⎢A 0⎥
Ao
⎢ o ⎥
F3 F1 σ = σ ij = ⎢ F3 F2
0⎥
⎢ Ao Ao ⎥
⎢0 0 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
A property of a symmetric tensor is that there exists an orthogonal set
of axes 1, 2 and 3 (called principal axes) with respect to which the
tensor elements are all zero except for those in the diagonal.
⎡σ x τ yx τ zx ⎤ ⎡σ 1 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 σ ⎥
σ = σ ij = ⎢τ xy σ y τ zy ⎥ σ ' = σ ij = ⎢
'
2 0⎥
⎢τ xz τ yz σ z ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 σ3⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦
15. Plane Stress or Biaxial Stress : When the material is in plane stress in
the plane xy, only the x and y faces of the element are subject to
stresses, and all the stresses act parallel to the x and y axes.
⎡σ xx τ yx 0⎤
⎢τ σ yy 0⎥
⎢ xy ⎥
⎢ 0
⎣ 0 0⎥
⎦
Stresses on Inclined Sections
Knowing the normal and shear stresses acting in the element denoted
by the xy axis, we will calculate the normal and shear stresses acting
in the element denoted by the axis x1y1.
16. y
y1 x1
θ
x
AO/Cosθ σ
x1
Ao Equilibrium of forces: Acting in x1
θ
σx τx1y1
θ
τxy
τyx AOSinθ/Cosθ
σy
AO Sinθ Sinθ
σ X1 ⋅ = σ X cosθ ⋅ AO + τ XY sinθ ⋅ AO + σY Sinθ ⋅ AO + τYX cosθ ⋅ AO
cosθ Cosθ Cosθ
17. Eliminating Ao , secθ = 1/cosθ
and τxy=τyx
σ X 1 = σ X cos 2 θ + σ Y sin 2 θ + 2τ XY sin θ cos θ
σ Y 1 = σ X sin 2 θ + σ Y cos 2 θ − 2τ XY sin θ cosθ
Acting in y1
τx1y1Aosecθ = − σxAosinθ + τxyAocosθ + σyAotanθcosθ − τyxAotanθsinθ
Eliminating Ao , secθ = 1/cosθ and τxy=τyx
τ x1 y1 = −σ x ⋅ sin θ ⋅ cos θ + σ y ⋅ sin θ ⋅ cos θ + τ xy (cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ )
18. Transformation Equations for Plane Stress
Using the following trigonometric identities:
Cos2θ = ½ (1+ cos 2θ) Sin2θ = ½ (1- cos 2θ) Sin θ cos θ = ½ sin 2θ
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σ x −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2
These equations are known as the transformation equations for
plane stress.
19. σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
Special Cases σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σ x −σ y
Case 1: Uniaxial stress τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
σ y = 0 τ xy = τ yx = 0 2
⎛ 1 + Cos 2θ ⎞
σ x1 = σ x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ Sin 2θ ⎞
τ x1, y1 = −σ x ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Case 2 : Pure Shear
σx =σy = 0
σ x1 = τ xy ⋅ Sin 2θ
τ x1, y1 = τ xy ⋅ Cos 2θ
20. Case 3: Biaxial stress
τ xy = 0
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ x1 = + ⋅ Cos 2θ
2 2
σ x −σ y
τ x1, y1 = − ⋅ Sin 2θ
2
21. Example: An element in plane stress is subjected to stresses
σx=16000psi, σy=6000psi, and τxy=τyx= 4000psi (as shown in figure
below). Determine the stresses acting on an element inclined at an
angle θ=45o (counterclockwise - ccw).
Solution: We will use the following transformation
equations:
σx +σ σ x −σ
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
y y
2 2
σ x −σ
τ x1 y 1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
y
2
22. Numerical substitution
½ (σx + σy) = ½ (16000 + 6000) = 11000psi
½ (σx - σy) = ½ (16000 – 6000) = 5000psi τxy = 4000psi
sin 2θ = sin 90o = 1 cos 2θ = cos 90o = 0 Then
σx1 = 11000psi + 5000psi (0) + 4000psi (1) = 15000psi
τx1y1 = - (5000psi) (1) + (4000psi) (0) = - 5000psi
σx1 + σy1 = σx + σy then σy1 = 16000 + 6000 – 15000 = 7000psi
σ 1 = 17,403 psi
σ 2 = 4,597 psi
τ Max = 6,403 psi
23. Example: A plane stress condition exists at a point on the surface of
a loaded structure such as shown below. Determine the stresses
acting on an element that is oriented at a clockwise (cw) angle of 15o
with respect to the original element.
Solution:
We will use the following transformation equations:
σx +σ σ x −σ
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
y y
2 2
σ x −σ
τ x1 y 1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
y
2
24. Numerical substitution
½ (σx + σy) = ½ (- 46 + 12) = - 17MPa
½ (σx - σy) = ½ (- 46 – 12) = - 29MPa τxy = - 19MPa
sin 2θ = sin (- 30o) = - 0.5 cos 2θ = cos (- 30o) = 0.866 then
σx1 = - 17MPa + ( - 29MPa)(0.8660) + (-19MPa)(- 0.5) = - 32.6MPa
τx1y1 = - (- 29MPa) (- 0.5) + (- 19MPa) (0.8660) = - 31.0MPa
σx1 + σy1 = σx + σy then σy1 = - 46MPa + 12MPa – (- 32.6MPa) = - 1.4MPa
25. Example : A rectangular plate of dimensions 3.0 in x 5.0 in is formed
by welding two triangular plates (see figure). The plate is subjected to
a tensile stress of 600psi in the long direction and a compressive stress
of 250psi in the short direction. Determine the normal stress σw acting
perpendicular to the line or the weld and the shear stress τw acting
parallel to the weld. (Assume σw is positive when it acts in tension and
τw is positive when it acts counterclockwise against the weld).
26. Solution
Biaxial stress weld joint σx = 600psi σy = -250psi τxy = 0
From the figure
tanθ = 3 / 5 θ = arctan(3/5) = arctan(0.6) = 30.96o
We will use the following σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
transformation equations: 2 2
σ x −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
Numerical substitution 2
½ (σx + σy) = 175psi ½ (σx - σy) = 425psi τxy = 0psi
sin 2θ = sin 61.92o cos 2θ = cos 61.92o
y
25psi -375psi 375psi
Then
σx1 = 375psi τx1y1 = - 375psi Θ=
σx1 + σy1 = σx + σy 30.96o
then σy1 = 600 + (- 250) – 375 = -25psi x
27. Stresses acting on the weld
σw 25psi
τw
375psi
θ
θ = 30.96o
σw = -25psi and τw = 375psi
28. Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stresses
The sum of the normal stresses acting on perpendicular faces of
plane stress elements is constant and independent of the angle θ.
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
σ X 1 + σ Y1 = σ X + σ Y
As we change the angle θ there will be maximum and minimum
normal and shear stresses that are needed for design purposes.
The maximum and minimum normal stresses are known as the
principal stresses. These stresses are found by taking the derivative
of σx1 with respect to θ and setting equal to zero.
δσ x1
= −(σ x − σ y ) sin 2θ + 2τ xy cos 2θ = 0
δθ
τ xy
tan 2θ P =
⎛σx −σ y ⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
29. The subscript p indicates that the angle θp defines the orientation of
the principal planes. The angle θp has two values that differ by 90o.
They are known as the principal angles.
For one of these angles σx1 is a maximum principal stress and for
the other a minimum. The principal stresses occur in mutually
perpendicular planes. τ
tan 2θ P = xy
⎛σx −σ y ⎞
⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
τ xy (σ x − σ y )
sin 2θ P = cos2θ P =
R 2R
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
for the maximum stress θ = θ P
30. σ x +σ y σ x −σ y ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞ ⎛τ ⎞ σ x +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2 ⎜ ⎟
⎛1⎞
σ1 = + ⎜
⎜ ⎟ + τ xy ⎜ xy ⎟ =
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ +⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟ R
2 2 ⎝ 2R ⎠ ⎝ R ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝R⎠
σ x +σ y ⎡⎛ σ x − σ y ⎞ 2 ⎤
⎟ + (τ xy ) ⎥
⎛1⎞
σ1 = + ⎜ ⎟ ⎢⎜ ⎜ ⎟
2
2 ⎝ R ⎠ ⎢⎝ 2 ⎠
⎣ ⎥
⎦
⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞ σ x +σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎞
2 2
But ⎜
R= ⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2 σ1 = + ⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎝ 2 ⎟ ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠
⎛σ x +σ y ⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞ ⎞
⎟ + (τ xy )2
Principal stresses:
σ1 = ⎜
⎜ ⎟+
⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛σ x +σ y ⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞ ⎞
σ2 = ⎜
⎜ ⎟−
⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
The plus sign gives the algebraically larger principal stress and the
minus sign the algebraically smaller principal stress.
31. Maximum Shear Stress
The location of the angle for the maximum shear stress is obtained
by taking the derivative of τx1y1 with respect to θ and setting it equal
to zero. σ x −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
δτ x1 y1 2
= −(σ x − σ y ) cos 2θ − 2τ xy sin 2θ = 0 Therefore, 2θs-2θp=-90o or θs= θp +/- 45o
δθ
σx −σ y The planes for maximum shear stress
occurs at 45o to the principal planes. The
tan 2θ S = − 2
τ xy plane of the maximum positive shear
stress τmax is defined by the angle θS1 for
which the following equations apply:
(σ x − σ y ) 1
tan 2θ S = − =− = − cot 2θ P
2τ xy tan 2θ P
sin 2θ S
=−
(
cos 2θ P − sin 90 o − 2θ P
= =
)
sin 2θ P − 90 o ( )
cos 2θ S sin 2θ P cos 90 − 2θ P
o
( )
cos 2θ P − 90 o ( )
τ xy (σ x − σ y )
cos 2θ s1 = sin 2θ s1 = − and θ s1 = θ P1 − 450
R 2R
32. ⎛σ x −σ y ⎞
2
The corresponding maximum shear is
τ MAX = ⎜
⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎟
given by the equation ⎝ 2 ⎠
Another expression for the maximum (σ 1 − σ 2 )
shear stress τ MAX =
2
(σ x + σ y )
The normal stresses associated with the
maximum shear stress are equal to
σ AVER =
2
Equations of a Circle
σ x +σ y σ x −σ y
General equation σ x1 = + cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2 2
Consider σ x −σ y
σ x1 − σ AVER = cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ
2
⎡σ x − σ y
2
⎤
Equation (1) (σ x1 − σ AVER ) 2
=⎢ cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
33. σ x −σ y
τ x1 y1 = − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ
2
⎡ σ x −σ y
2
⎤
Equation (2) (τ )
x1 y1
2
= ⎢− sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Equation (1) + Equation (2)
⎡σ x − σ y ⎡ σ x −σ y
2 2
⎤ ⎤
(σ x1 − σ AVER )2 + (τ x1 y1 )2 =⎢ cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ⎥ + ⎢− sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎡σ x − σ y ⎛σ x −σ y ⎛σ −σ y
2 2
⎤ ⎞ ⎞
⎢ cos 2θ + τ xy sin 2θ ⎥ = ⎜
⎜ ⎟ cos 2 2θ + (τ xy )2 sin 2 2θ + 2⎜ x
⎟ ⎜ ⎟(τ xy )sin 2θ cos 2θ
⎟
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎡ σ x −σ y ⎛ σ x −σ y ⎛σ −σ y
2 2
⎤ ⎞ ⎞
⎢ − sin 2θ + τ xy cos 2θ ⎥ = ⎜ −
⎜ ⎟ sin 2 2θ + (τ xy )2 cos 2 2θ − 2⎜ x
⎟ ⎜ ⎟(τ xy )sin 2θ cos 2θ
⎟
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞
SUM =⎜
⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2 = R 2
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
(σ x1 − σ AVER ) + (τ x1 y1 ) = R 2
2 2
34. Mohr Circle
The radius of the Mohr
circle is the magnitude R.
⎛σ x +σ y ⎞
⎜
⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎟
⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞
C
⎝ ⎠
σ R= ⎜
⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )2
⎟
2θP ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛σ −σ ⎞
2 τxy
R = ⎜
⎜
x y
⎟ +(
⎟ τ xy )
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ The center of the Mohr circle
is the magnitude
τ (σ +σ y )
σ AVER =
x
2
⎛σ x −σ y
2
⎞
(σ x1 − σ AVER ) + (τ x1 y1 ) =⎜ ⎟ + (τ xy )
2 2 2
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
35. Alternative sign conversion for
shear stresses:
(a) clockwise shear stress,
(b) counterclockwise shear
stress, and
(c) axes for Mohr’s circle.
Note that clockwise shear
stresses are plotted upward and
counterclockwise shear stresses
are plotted downward.
Forms of Mohr’s Circle
a) We can plot the normal stress σx1 positive to the right and the shear
stress τx1y1 positive downwards, i.e. the angle 2θ will be positive
when counterclockwise or
b) We can plot the normal stress σx1 positive to the right and the shear
stress τx1y1 positive upwards, i.e. the angle 2θ will be positive when
clockwise.
Both forms are mathematically correct. We use (a)
36. Two forms of Mohr’s circle:
(a) τx1y1 is positive downward and the angle 2θ
is positive counterclockwise, and
(b) τx1y1 is positive upward and the angle 2θ is
positive clockwise. (Note: The first form is
used here)
38. Example: At a point on the surface of a pressurized
cylinder, the material is subjected to biaxial stresses
σx = 90MPa and σy = 20MPa as shown in the element
below.
Using the Mohr circle, determine the stresses acting
on an element inclined at an angle θ = 30o (Sketch a
properly oriented element).
Solution (σx = 90MPa, σy = 20MPa and
τxy = 0MPa)
Because the shear stress is zero, these are the
principal stresses.
Construction of the Mohr’s circle
The center of the circle is
σaver = ½ (σx + σy) = ½ (90 + 20) = 55MPa
The radius of the circle is
R = SQR[((σx – σy)/2)2 + (τxy)2]
R= (90 – 20)/2 = 35MPa.
39. Stresses on an element inclined at θ = 30o
By inspection of the circle, the coordinates of point D are
σx1 = σaver + R cos 60o = 55MPa + 35MPa (Cos 60o) = 72.5MPa
τx1y1 = - R sin 60o = - 35MPa (Sin 60o) = - 30.3MPa
In a similar manner we can find the stresses represented by point D’, which
correspond to an angle θ = 120o ( 2θ = 240o)
σy1 = σaver - R cos 60o = 55MPa - 35MPa (Cos 60o) = 37.5MPa
τx1y1 = R sin 60o = 35MPa (Sin 60o) = 30.3MPa
40. Example: An element in plane stress at the
surface of a large machine is subjected to
stresses σx = 15000psi, σy = 5000psi and
τxy = 4000psi, as shown in the figure.
Using the Mohr’s circle determine the following:
a) The stresses acting on an element inclined at
an angle θ = 40o
b) The principal stresses and
c) The maximum shear stresses.
Solution
Construction of Mohr’s circle:
Center of the circle (Point C): σaver = ½ (σx + σy) = ½ (15000 + 5000) = 10000psi
Radius of the circle: R = SQR[((σx – σy)/2)2 + (τxy)2]
R = SQR[((15000 – 5000)/2)2 + (4000)2] = 6403psi.
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (θ = 0o) has the
coordinates σx1 = 15000psi and τx1y1 = 4000psi
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90o) has the
coordinates σy1 = 5000psi and τy1x1 = - 4000psi
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R
41. Stresses on an element inclined at θ = 40o
These are given by the coordinates of point D which is at an angle 2θ = 80o from point
A. By inspection the angle ACP1 for the principal stresses (point P1) is tan ACP1 =
4000/5000 = 0.8 or 38.66o.
Then, the angle P1CD is 80o – 38.66o = 41.34o
42. Knowing this angle, we can calculate the coordinates of point D (by inspection)
σx1 = σaver + R cos 41.34o = 10000psi + 6403psi (Cos 41.34o) = 14810psi
τx1y1 = - R sin 41.34o = - 6403psi (Sin 41.34o) = - 4230psi
In an analogous manner, we can find the stresses represented by point D’, which
correspond to a plane inclined at an angle θ = 40o + 90o = 130o
σy1 = σaver - R cos 41.34o = 10000psi - 6403psi (Cos 41.34o) = 5190psi
τx1y1 = R sin 41.34o = 6403psi (Sin 41.34o) = 4230psi
And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is
14810psi + 5190psi = 15000psi + 5000psi
43. Principal Stresses
The principal stresses are represented by
points P1 and P2 on Mohr’s circle.
σ1 = 10000psi + 6400psi = 16400psi
σ2 = 10000psi – 6400psi = 3600psi
The angle it was found to be 2θ = 38.66o
or θ = 19.3o
Maximum Shear Stresses
These are represented by point S1 and
S2 in Mohr’s circle.
The angle ACS1 from point A to point
S1 is 2 θS1 = 51.34o. This angle is
negative because is measured clockwise
on the circle. Then the corresponding
θS1 value is – 25.7o.
44. Example:At a point on the surface of a
generator shaft the stresses are σx = -50MPa,
σy = 10MPa and τxy = - 40MPa as shown in
the figure. Using Mohr’s circle determine the
following:
(a) Stresses acting on an element inclined at an
angle θ = 45o,
(b) The principal stresses and
(c) The maximum shear stresses
Solution
Construction of Mohr’s circle:
Center of the circle (Point C): σaver = ½ (σx + σy) = ½ ((-50) + 10) = - 20MPa
Radius of the circle: R = SQR[((σx – σy)/2)2 + (τxy)2]
R = SQR[((- 50 – 10)/2)2 + (- 40)2] = 50MPa.
Point A, representing the stresses on the x face of the element (θ = 0o) has the
coordinates σx1 = -50MPa and τx1y1 = - 40MPa
Point B, representing the stresses on the y face of the element (θ = 90o) has the
coordinates σy1 = 10MPa and τy1x1 = 40MPa
The circle is now drawn through points A and B with center C and radius R.
45. Stresses on an element inclined
at θ = 45o
These stresses are given by the
coordinates of point D (2θ = 90o
of point A). To calculate its
magnitude we need to determine
the angles ACP2 and P2CD.
tan ACP2=40/30=4/3 ACP2=53.13o P2CD = 90o – ACP2 = 90o – 53.13o = 36.87o
Then, the coordinates of point D are
σx1 = σaver + R cos 36.87o = - 20MPa – 50MPa (Cos 36.87o) = - 60MPa
τx1y1 = R sin 36.87o = 50MPa (Sin 36.87o) = 30MPa
In an analogous manner, the stresses represented by point D’, which correspond to a
plane inclined at an angle θ = 135o or 2θ = 270o
σy1 = -20MPa + 50MPa (Cos 36.87o) = 20MPa τx1y1 = -30MPa
And of course, the sum of the normal stresses is -50MPa+10MPa = -60MPa +20MPa
46. Principal Stresses Maximum Shear Stresses
They are represented by points P1 and These are represented by point S1 and S2
P2 on Mohr’s circle. in Mohr’s circle.
σ1 = - 20MPa + 50MPa = 30MPa The angle ACS1 is 2θS1 = 90o + 53.13o =
σ2 = -20MPa – 50MPa = - 70MPa 143.13o or θ = 71.6o .
The angle ACP1 is 2θP1 = 180o + 53.13o The magnitude of the maximum shear
= 233.13o or θP1 = 116.6o stress is 50MPa and the normal stresses
The angle ACP2 is 2θP2 = 53.13o or θP2 corresponding to point S1 is -20MPa.
= 26.6o