The document provides an overview of a course on computer hardware and networking. The course objectives are to understand computer components, peripherals, and networking systems. It will cover selecting, installing, and maintaining hardware and networking equipment, as well as identifying hardware versus software problems. The document outlines concepts like motherboards, chipsets, CPUs, memory, and input/output devices. It also discusses computer types, operations, and basic components.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems, Multicomputer System
Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems, Multicomputer System
These are the complete notes of computer hardware which are usefull in project reports & synopsis while submitting also help in studying.provided by the technical zone
These are the complete notes of computer hardware which are usefull in project reports & synopsis while submitting also help in studying.provided by the technical zone
In this slide presentation you will get to know how computers work, the processes, basic mechanism and also the various components of the machine as a system.
To know more about Welingkar School’s Distance Learning Program and courses offered, visit:
http://www.welingkaronline.org/distance-learning/online-mba.html
This Slideshare is the sole Property of the Welingkar School of Distance Learning – Reproduction of this material , without prior consent, either wholly or partially will be treated as a violation of copyright.
Computer is a device that can process information. Bus, powersupply, ports and other peripherals such as modems etc. form the components of a computer.
For more such innovative content on management studies, join WeSchool PGDM-DLP Program: http://bit.ly/ZEcPAc
I'ts all about computer. About the function, input devices,output devices,storage devices and process devices. And also types of computers, P.C Back Panel Labeled and Motherboard Labeled
A computer is an electronic device that takes data and instructions as input, processes the data and produces useful information as output.
First Calculating machine: Abacus means calculating board.
Mechanical device Napier Bones for the purpose of multiplication.
Slide rule for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Pascal’s adding and subtractory machine.
Leibniz’s multiplication and dividing machine.
Charles babbage’s analytical engine.
Mechanical and electrical calculator to perform all type of calculation.
Modern electronic calculator.
||||The compilation and execution process of C can be divided into multiple steps:|||
Preprocessing - Using a Preprocessor program to convert C source code in expanded source code. "#includes" and "#defines" statements will be processed and replaced actually source codes in this step.
Compilation - Using a Compiler program to convert C expanded source to assembly source code.
Assembly - Using a Assembler program to convert assembly source code to object code.
Linking - Using a Linker program to convert object code to executable code. Multiple units of object codes are linked to together in this step.
Loading - Using a Loader program to load the executable code into CPU for execution.
|||Steps to solve a Problem||||
Analyze the problem.
Divide the process used to solve the problem in a series of tasks.
Formulate the algorithm to solve the problem.
Convert the algorithm in computer program.
Write the program in computer.
Input the data.
Program operates on input data.
Result produced.
Send the generated result to output unit to display it to user.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniquesambekarshweta25
An Approach to Detecting Writing Styles Based on Clustering Techniques
Authors:
-Devkinandan Jagtap
-Shweta Ambekar
-Harshit Singh
-Nakul Sharma (Assistant Professor)
Institution:
VIIT Pune, India
Abstract:
This paper proposes a system to differentiate between human-generated and AI-generated texts using stylometric analysis. The system analyzes text files and classifies writing styles by employing various clustering algorithms, such as k-means, k-means++, hierarchical, and DBSCAN. The effectiveness of these algorithms is measured using silhouette scores. The system successfully identifies distinct writing styles within documents, demonstrating its potential for plagiarism detection.
Introduction:
Stylometry, the study of linguistic and structural features in texts, is used for tasks like plagiarism detection, genre separation, and author verification. This paper leverages stylometric analysis to identify different writing styles and improve plagiarism detection methods.
Methodology:
The system includes data collection, preprocessing, feature extraction, dimensional reduction, machine learning models for clustering, and performance comparison using silhouette scores. Feature extraction focuses on lexical features, vocabulary richness, and readability scores. The study uses a small dataset of texts from various authors and employs algorithms like k-means, k-means++, hierarchical clustering, and DBSCAN for clustering.
Results:
Experiments show that the system effectively identifies writing styles, with silhouette scores indicating reasonable to strong clustering when k=2. As the number of clusters increases, the silhouette scores decrease, indicating a drop in accuracy. K-means and k-means++ perform similarly, while hierarchical clustering is less optimized.
Conclusion and Future Work:
The system works well for distinguishing writing styles with two clusters but becomes less accurate as the number of clusters increases. Future research could focus on adding more parameters and optimizing the methodology to improve accuracy with higher cluster values. This system can enhance existing plagiarism detection tools, especially in academic settings.
KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
K8sGPT is a tool that analyzes and diagnoses Kubernetes clusters. This presentation was used to share the requirements and dependencies to deploy K8sGPT in a local environment.
Water billing management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project entitled “Water Billing Management System” aims is to generate Water bill with all the charges and penalty. Manual system that is employed is extremely laborious and quite inadequate. It only makes the process more difficult and hard.
The aim of our project is to develop a system that is meant to partially computerize the work performed in the Water Board like generating monthly Water bill, record of consuming unit of water, store record of the customer and previous unpaid record.
We used HTML/PHP as front end and MYSQL as back end for developing our project. HTML is primarily a visual design environment. We can create a android application by designing the form and that make up the user interface. Adding android application code to the form and the objects such as buttons and text boxes on them and adding any required support code in additional modular.
MySQL is free open source database that facilitates the effective management of the databases by connecting them to the software. It is a stable ,reliable and the powerful solution with the advanced features and advantages which are as follows: Data Security.MySQL is free open source database that facilitates the effective management of the databases by connecting them to the software.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Online aptitude test management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
The purpose of on-line aptitude test system is to take online test in an efficient manner and no time wasting for checking the paper. The main objective of on-line aptitude test system is to efficiently evaluate the candidate thoroughly through a fully automated system that not only saves lot of time but also gives fast results. For students they give papers according to their convenience and time and there is no need of using extra thing like paper, pen etc. This can be used in educational institutions as well as in corporate world. Can be used anywhere any time as it is a web based application (user Location doesn’t matter). No restriction that examiner has to be present when the candidate takes the test.
Every time when lecturers/professors need to conduct examinations they have to sit down think about the questions and then create a whole new set of questions for each and every exam. In some cases the professor may want to give an open book online exam that is the student can take the exam any time anywhere, but the student might have to answer the questions in a limited time period. The professor may want to change the sequence of questions for every student. The problem that a student has is whenever a date for the exam is declared the student has to take it and there is no way he can take it at some other time. This project will create an interface for the examiner to create and store questions in a repository. It will also create an interface for the student to take examinations at his convenience and the questions and/or exams may be timed. Thereby creating an application which can be used by examiners and examinee’s simultaneously.
Examination System is very useful for Teachers/Professors. As in the teaching profession, you are responsible for writing question papers. In the conventional method, you write the question paper on paper, keep question papers separate from answers and all this information you have to keep in a locker to avoid unauthorized access. Using the Examination System you can create a question paper and everything will be written to a single exam file in encrypted format. You can set the General and Administrator password to avoid unauthorized access to your question paper. Every time you start the examination, the program shuffles all the questions and selects them randomly from the database, which reduces the chances of memorizing the questions.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
2. COURSE OBJECTIVES
After completion of this course you will able to:
• Understand principle, construction, working of computer
peripherals
• Select cost effective, good quality reliable peripherals and
equipment
• Identify the problem as hardware or software related.
• Identify and repair the simple faults in computer systems.
• Plan, analyze, design, install, configure, test, implement and
maintain networking systems
Application :
• Selection of appropriate hardware based on application
• Repair and maintenance of PC’s
• Plan, analyze, design, install, configure, test, implement and
maintain networking systems 2
3. CONCEPT MAPPING
3
COMPUTER
(Hardware &
Networking)
Types
DIGITAL
•Micro
•Home
•PC
•Mainframe
•Super
•Mini
ANALOG HYBRID
Hardware
CPU
•ALU
•Motherb
oard
•Chipset
•Intel
945 G
•Register MEMORY
•DDR RAMs
•Cache
•Internal
•External
•L1,L2,L3
•CD/DVD
ROM
•BIOS
I/O
DEVICES
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Monitor
POWER
SUPPLY
• SMPS
• UPS
• USB
Software
SYSTEM SOFT
• O/S
• Utility
Programs etc
APPLICATION
SOFT
• Web
• Mobile etc
Networking
CLASSIFI-
CATIONS
•LAN
•WAN
•MAN
•Peer to Peer
TOPOLOGY
CABLES
• Coaxial
• UTP
• STP
• Fiber
Optics
STANDARDS
• Ethernet
• Ring
• Token
• Wireless
DEVICES &
MODELS
• OSI
• Interlayer
Comm
• TCP/IP
Hubs
Switches
Routers
Bridge
Repeaters
Gateways
Firewalls
Diagnostic, Testing&
Maintenance
• Preventive
• Passive
5. OBJECTIVES
After completion of this unit you will able to:
• Identify different components and their function on
motherboard
• Identify and compare storage devices
• Write specifications, select appropriate monitor and
compare LCD and CRT monitors
• Understand principle, construction and working of
peripherals
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6. CONTENTS
• Different types of PC configurations and their comparison, Chipset basic,
Architecture of Intel 945 G
• Overview and features of ISA, PCI-X, PCI-Xpress
• Overview features and types of DDR RAMs, Concept of cache memory : Internal
cache, External cache (L1, L2, L3 cache), OS Basics
• CD/DVD ROM drive : Construction, recording, comparison
• LCD monitor: functional block diagram of LCD monitor, working principle, Types-
Passive matrix and Active matrix. important characteristics - Resolution, Refresh
rate, Response time. Comparison of CRT display and LCD display
• Construction, working & Installation of Keyboard, mouse, Scanner and printer.
• Keyboard: Membrane and mechanical only.
• Mouse: Optical only, Scanner: Flatbed only, Printer: Dot matrix, Inkjet, and
Laser only
Motherboard & Peripherals
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7. TYPES OF PC BASED ON CONFIGURATIONS
• Different types of PC Based on configurations
• Comparison
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Computer
Digital
Micro
Home
PC
Mainframe
Super
MiniAnalog
Hybrid
8. TYPES OF PC BASED ON CONFIGURATIONS
• DIGITAL COMPUTER
• ANALOG COMPUTER
• HYBRID COMPUTER
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9. TYPES OF PC BASED ON CONFIGURATIONS
• DIGITAL COMPUTER
• A Digital Computer works with digits to represent numerals, letters or
other special symbols.
• Digital Computers operate on inputs which are ON-OFF type and its
output is also in the form of ON-OFF signal.
• Normally, an ON is represented by a 1 and an OFF is represented by a
0.
• A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non-
numeric data.
• ANALOG COMPUTER
• HYBRID COMPUTER
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10. TYPES OF PC BASED ON CONFIGURATIONS
• DIGITAL COMPUTER
• ANALOG COMPUTER
• Analog computers are used to process analog data. Analog data is of
continuous nature and which is not discrete or separate.
• Such type of data includes temperature, pressure, speedweight,
voltage, depth etc.
• These quantities are continuous and having an infinite variety of
values.
• HYBRID COMPUTER
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11. TYPES OF PC BASED ON CONFIGURATIONS
• DIGITAL COMPUTER
• ANALOG COMPUTER
• HYBRID COMPUTER
• A hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers.
• It combines the best features of both types of computers,i-e. It has the
speed of analog computer and the memory and accuracy ofdigital
computer.
• Hybrid computers are used mainly in specialized applications where
both kinds of data need to be processed. Therefore, they help the user,
to process both continuous and discrete data.
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12. TYPES OF PC BASED ON CONFIGURATIONS
What makes a computer powerful?
• Speed
• A computer can do billions of actions per second.
• Reliability
• Failures are usually due to human error, one way or another.
• Storage
• A computer can keep huge amounts of data.
• Digital Computer Categories
• Mobile Computer
• Microcomputer
• Minicomputers
• Mainframes
• Supercomputer
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13. COMPUTER OPERATIONS
• The computer is an electronic machine that performs the
following five basic operations:
• Input
• Process
• Store
• Control
• Output
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Memory
Unit
Control
Unit
ALU
INPUT OUTPUT
Take Input Output Information
Control the workflow
Store Data
Process Data
CPU
14. HARDWARE vs SOFTWARE
• Hardware: It is any part of your computer that has a physical
structure, such as the computer monitor or keyboard.
• Software: It is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what
to do. It is what guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish
each task.
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15. BASIC COMPUTER COMPONENTS
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DISPLAY UNIT
MAINBOARD
PRINTER
EXTERNAL HARD DRIVE
MOUSE
KEYBOARD
CPU
PLUG IN MEMORY MODULE
POWER
SUPPLY UNIT
SCANNER HARD DISK DRIVE
SPEAKER
PLUG IN CKT MODULE
CD/DVD ROM DRIVE
16. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• System Unit
• The system unit is the core of a computer system.
• The most important of these components is the central processing unit
(CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer.
• Another component is random access memory (RAM), which
temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is
on.
• Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit
using cables.
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17. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• Computer Case
• Where all of the components are stored.
• The computer case serves mainly as a way to physically mount and
contain all of the actual computer components.
• Cases typically come bundled with a power supply.
• Two types of casing:
• Tower
• Desktop
• Desktop and tower computers are two different styles of computer
case that use desk space in varying ways.
• Desktop computers are designed to lay flat on the desk, while towers
stand upright
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18. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• Power Supply
• Used to sends power to all of the other hardware so they can operate.
• Two types of power supply:
• –AT (Advanced Technology)
• –ATX (Advanced Technology Extended)
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• The CPU, or the Central Processing Unit, is the brain of the computer
and the single most important chip in the computer.
• The CPU performs the system's calculating and processing.
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19. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• Computer Memory
• Also known as Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Computer memory is used to store information in electronic devices.
• Motherboard
• The main circuit board of the computer.
• All key internal and external components of the computer plug into the
Motherboard.
• Components directly attached to the motherboard include:
• CPU, Chipset, Random-Access Memory(RAM), Read-Only Memory(ROM),
BIOS(Basic Input Output System), Buses, Ports
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21. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• Hard disk
• It used to store computer data and
program.
• It can hold more data and are faster
than floppy disks
• Optical Disc Drive
• An optical storage technology that
stores and plays back data.
• Some drives can only read from discs,
but recent drives are commonly both
readers and recorders.
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22. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• Video card
• A board that plugs into a personal
computer to give it display capabilities.
• The display capabilities of a computer,
however, depend on both the logical
circuitry (provided in the video adapter)
and the display monitor.
• Sound card
• A circuit board that plugs into your
Motherboard that adds audio capability
to your computer, providing high quality
stereo output to the speakers.
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23. COMPUTER COMPONENTS
• Modem
• Short for modulator-demodulator.
• A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data
over, for example, telephone or cable lines.
• Monitor
• The part of a computer that allows you to see what the computer is
processing.
• Other Components
•Input Devices
–Keyboard, mouse
•Output Devices
–Printer, speakers
•Operating System
–Windows, MacOS, Linux
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24. • The CPU is the hardware device in a computer that executes all
of the instructions from the software
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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CPU ROM RAM I/O
BUS INTERFACE UNIT
ALU
Timing & Control
ADDRESS BUS
DATA BUS
CONTROL BUS
Fig: - A simple CPU design
25. • The bus interface unit takes the data to & from the CPU along
the Data bus to Read/Write memory & Input/output devices.
This is a two way bus. The bus interface unit also places the
required location addresses on to the Address Bus, so that the
input/output devices can be accessed. The ALU carries out all the
calculations & decisions. The Control bus gives indications of
whether the CPU is currently reading or writing to memory or to
I/O devices.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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26. • ROM (Read Only Memory)
• Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed
and can only be read. Unlike main memory (RAM), ROM retains its
contents even when the computer is turned off. ROM is referred to as
being nonvolatile, whereas RAM is volatile.
• RAM
• I/O
• ADDRESS BUS
• DATA BUS
• INTERNAL REGISTER
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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27. • ROM
• RAM (Random Access Memory)
• It is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program, and
program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.
• I/O
• ADDRESS BUS
• DATA BUS
• INTERNAL REGISTER
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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28. • ROM
• RAM
• I/O
• ADDRESS BUS
• The address bus is the set of wires that carries the addressing
information used to describe the memory location to which the data is
being sent or from which the data is being retrieved.
• The size (or width) of the address bus indicates the maximum amount
of RAM a chip can address.
• DATA BUS
• INTERNAL REGISTER
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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29. • ROM
• RAM
• I/O
• ADDRESS BUS
• DATA BUS
• The bundle of wires (or pins) used to send and receive data.
• The more signals that can be sent at the same time, the more data can be
transmitted in a specified interval and, therefore, the faster (and wider) the
bus.
• Modern processors data bus can transfer 64 bits of data at a time to and
from the motherboard chipset or system memory.
• INTERNAL REGISTER
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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30. • ROM
• RAM
• I/O
• ADDRESS BUS
• DATA BUS
• INTERNAL REGISTER
• The size of the internal registers indicates how much information the
processor can operate on at one time and how it moves data around
internally within the chip. This is sometimes also referred to as the
internal data bus.
• A register is a holding cell within the processor.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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31. • Modes of operation of CPU : Processor modes refer to the various
ways that the processor creates an operating environment for itself.
Specifically, the processor mode controls how the processor sees and
manages the system memory and the tasks that use it.
• Real Mode
• IA-32 (Intel Architecture - 32)(Protected) Mode
• IA-32 Virtual Real Mode
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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32. • Process Technologies: Dual Independent Bus Architecture
• DIB uses two buses:
1. One from the processor to main memory, and The other from the processor to the
L2 cache.
2. The processor can access both buses simultaneously, which increases throughput.
• Hyper-Threading Technology:
1. HT Technology enables a single processor to execute 2 separate code streams
(called threads) concurrently.
2. HT technology allows 1 physical processor to appear as 2 “logical” processors to
software (O/S and applications).
• Each logical processor has its own architecture state with its own set of general-purpose and
control registers
• Some resources are shared (caches, exe units, buses, etc)
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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33. • Processor Sockets & Slots:
• A CPU socket or CPU slot is a mechanical component(s) that provides
mechanical and electrical connections between a microprocessor and a
printed circuit board (PCB).
• This allows the CPU to be replaced without soldering.
• A CPU socket is made of plastic, a lever or latch, and metal contacts for each
of the pins or lands on the CPU.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
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Fig: CPU Socket 775
34. • A chipset is a set of electronic components in an integrated
circuit that manages the data flow between the processor,
memory and peripherals. It is usually found in the motherboard
of a computer.
CHIPSET BASIC
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SOUTH BRIDGE
PROCESSOR
NORTH BRIDGEAGP RAM
PCI
ISA
HDDI
SCSI
BIOS LAN
35. • Northbridge
1. Northbridge is also called Memory Controller Hub (MCH) in Intel Systems. It is one of the two chips in the core
logic chipset on the PC motherboard.
2. It handles communication between CPU, RAM, AGP or PCI Express and the Southbridge.
3. Some North-bridges also have the integrated Video controller called Graphics Memory Controller Hub (GMCH).
4. Since different processors and RAM require different signaling, a north-bridge will work with one or two types
of CPU and only one type of RAM It provides the number, Speed, type of CPU, Size, type of RAM that can be
used.
5. The north-bridge plays an important role in deciding how far a computer can be over- clocked.
6. It uses a heat sink and some kind of cooling (Fan).
• South bridge
1. The Southbridge, also known as the I/O Controller Hub (ICH)
2. It is a chip that implements the "slower" capabilities of the motherboard in north bridge/south bridge chipset
computer architecture.
3. It is not directly connected to the CPU. Rather, the north bridge ties the south bridge to the CPU.
4. A particular type of south bridge may work with different north bridge chipsets.
5. The interface between the north bridge and the south bridge is the PCI bus.
6. Bridge connection from Memory Controller Hub to slower devices like USB devices, PCI-X, IDE(SATA/PATA), Real
Time Clock, BIOS, onboard sound and more
CHIPSET BASIC
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36. Architecture of Intel 945 G
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37. • Latest chipset for PC
Latest chipset for PC
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38. BUSES : ISA,PCI-X, PCI-Xpress
• ISA (industry Standard Architecture)
• ISA is the first open s/m bus architecture used for IBM-Type personal
computer.
• Both 8-bit and 16-bit version of ISA bus are available
1. 8-bit ISA bus:
2. 16-bit ISA bus
• Features
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39. BUSES : ISA,PCI-X, PCI-Xpress
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect):
• It is high performance Bus that is used to integrate chips, processor, memory subsystems and
expansion boards.
• Features of PCI bus:
1. Extremely High-speed data transfer: 32 bit wide data transfer @33 MHz gives a maximum
throughput of 132 mbps. Data transfer @66 MHz with 64 bit wide data is now being offered.
2. Plug & play facility: A PCI board inserted in any PCI slot is automatically detected & the
required i/o & memory resources are allotted by the system.
3. New Approach: It moves peripherals of the i/o bus & places them closer to the system
processor bus. Thereby providing faster data transfer between the processor & peripherals.
4. Processor Independent: The PCI local bus fulfills the need for the local bus standard that is not
directly dependent on the speed & structure of processor bus, and that is both reliable and
expandable.
5. Full multi master capability: This allows any PCI master to communicate directly with other PCI
master slave.
6. Parity on both data & address line: This allows implementation of robust systems (Robustness
is defined as "the ability of a system to resist change without adapting its initial stable
configuration") support for both 5 V & 3.3 V operated logic.
7. Forward & backward compatibility between 66MHz & 33MHz PCI
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40. BUSES : ISA,PCI-X, PCI-Xpress
• PCI-X: PCI-X (Peripheral Component Interconnect Extended) is a
computer bus technology that increases the frequency of the data
bus from 66MHz to 133MHz.
• Features of PCI-X bus:
1. Up to 133MHz bus speed
2. 64 bit bandwidth
3. 1 Gbps throughput
4. More efficient bus operation for easier interface.
5. Split transaction allows & indicator device to make only one data request
& release the bus, instead of constantly needing to poll the bus for
response.
6. Byte count that enables indicators to specify in advanced, the specific
number of bytes requested, eliminating the inefficiency of involving a high
risk of loss pre fetches.
7. Backward compatibility.
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41. BUSES : ISA,PCI-X, PCI-Xpress
• PCI-Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCIe)):
• It is a scalable Input/output (I/O) serial bus technology that largely
replaced earlier PCI slots on motherboards.
• Features of PCI Express:
1. Point-to-Point connection: PCI Express is a point-to-point connection,
which means it does not share bandwidth but communicates directly with
devices via a switch that directs data flow.
2. Hot Swapping & Plugging: This allows for "hot swapping" or "hot
plugging," which means cards in PCIe slots can be changed without
shutting down the computer.
3. Less Power Consumption: It consumes less power than previous PCI
technology.
4. Scalable: One of the most promising features of PCI-Express is that it is
scalable, which means greater bandwidth can be achieved through adding
more "lanes."
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42. MEMORIES
• Memory : It is workplace for the processor or temporary storage area
• RAM (Random Access Memory) is where data is stored that's being
accessed by the CPU.
• Types of RAM:
1. Static RAM:
• (Static RAM or SRAM) that holds data in a static form, that is, as long as the memory
has power.
• Unlike dynamic RAM, it does not need to be refreshed.
• Stores a bit of data on four transistors using two cross-coupled inverters.
• Faster and less volatile than dynamic RAM, but it requires more power and is more
expensive.
2. Dynamic RAM:
• stores each bit in a storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a transistor. Capacitors
tend to lose their charge rather quickly; thus, the need for recharging or refreshing.
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43. MEMORIES
• Types of DRAM:
1. FPM (Fast Page Mode):
• Traditional RAM for PC.
• Mounted in single inline memory module (SIMM) of 2MB, 4MB, 8MB, 16MB, 32MB.
2. EDO (Extended Data Out): It is faster than FPM RAM. EDO have improvement in performance 2% to
5% compared with FPM.
3. ECC (Error Correcting Code): It is special error correcting RAM used in server.
4. SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM):
• It synchronizes data transfer between the CPU and memory.
• Allows the CPU to process data while another process is being queued.
• Features of SDRAM:
• All SDRAM chips for desktop PC have 168 pins
• Speed of SDRAM is 100 MHz & 133 MHz
• Available in sizes 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB, 512MB, & 1GB
• Operating Voltage 3.3 V
• Architecture used Synchronous
• Operating Max Temperature is 85oC
• It Pre-fetches 1 bit at a time
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44. MEMORIES
• DDR (Double Data Rate SDRAM): also called DDR1 SDRAM.
• DDR SDRAM (double data rate SDRAM) is synchronous dynamic RAM
(SDRAM) that can theoretically improve memory clock speed to at least 200
MHz
• Features of DDR SDRAM:
• Chips have 184 pins.
• Comes in different speeds i.e.100Mhz, 133MHz, 166MHz, 200MHz
• DDR is twice as fast as SDRAM
• Operating Voltage 2.5 V
• Architecture used is Source Synchronous (it refers to the technique of having
the transmitting device send a clock signal along with the data signals.)
• Operating Max Temperature – 85oC
• It Pre-fetches 2 bit at a time
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45. MEMORIES
• DDR2 (Double Data Rate 2 SDRAM):
Features of DDR2:
• The DDR2 RAM chip has 240 pins
• DDR2 operate at data rates of 400MHz,
533MHz, 667MHz, & above
• Higher Bandwidth
• Lower power 1.8V
• Architecture used source synchronous
• It pre-fetches 4 bits at a time
• Operating Max Temperature – 95oC
• DDR3 (Double Data Rate 3 RAM):
Features of DDR3:
• Introduction to asynchronous RESET pin.
• Support system level same delay
compensation. On DIMM (dual in-line
memory module) mirror friendly DRAM pin
out.
• Introduction of CWL (CAS Write Latency) per
Speed bin.
• On-die I/O calibration engine.
• READ & WRITE calibration.
• It works on very low power i.e.1.5V
• DDR3 operate at data rates of 800MHz,
1066MHz, 1333MHZ, 1600MHz, & above.
• It pre-fetches 8 bits at a time.
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46. CACHE MEMORY
•“The cache is a very high speed and very expensive
piece of memory, which is used to speed up the
memory retrieval process.”
• Recently used instructions and data are kept in a very fast memory so
that the CPU does not have to access the main memory every time it
requires access to data.
• Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer
microprocessor can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM.
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47. CACHE MEMORY
• As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory
and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not
have to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger
memory.
• Cache is a smaller, faster, memory which stores copies of data from most
frequently used main memory location.
• Cache memory is a high speed memory buffer that processor need allows
processor to retrieve data faster than it will come from main memory.
• The advantage of cache memory is that CPU does not have to use the
motherboard bus for data transfer.
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48. CACHE MEMORY
•Types of Cache Memory:
• L1 (Level 1 or Internal or Primary) Cache
• L2 (Level 2 or External or Secondary) Cache
• L3 Cache
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49. CACHE MEMORY
•Types of Cache Memory:
• L1 (Level 1 or Internal or Primary) Cache:
• Called primary cache, is a static memory integrated with processor core
that is used to store information recently accessed by a processor.
• The purpose is to improve data access speed in cases when the CPU
accesses the same data multiple times.
• The L1 cache typically ranges in size from 8KB to 64KB and uses the high-
speed SRAM (static RAM) instead of the slower and cheaper DRAM
(dynamic RAM) used for main memory.
• L2 (Level 2 or External or Secondary) Cache:
• L3 Cache:
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50. CACHE MEMORY
•Types of Cache Memory:
• L1 (Level 1 or Internal or Primary) Cache
• L2 (Level 2 or External or Secondary) Cache:
• Called secondary cache, is a memory that is used to store recently accessed
information.
• The goal of having the level 2 cache is to reduce data access time in cases when
the same data was already accessed before. This also reduces data access time.
• Please note that the level 2 caches is secondary to the CPU - it is not as fast as the
level 1 cache, although it is usually much larger.
• All data that is requested from level 2 cache is copied to level 1 cache. Requested
data stays in the secondary cache if it's an inclusive cache, and is removed from
secondary cache if it's an exclusive cache.
• L2 caches come between L1 and RAM (processor-L1-L2-RAM) and are bigger than
the primary cache (typically 64KB to 4MB).
• L3 Cache:
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51. CACHE MEMORY
•Types of Cache Memory:
• L1 (Level 1 or Internal or Primary) Cache
• L2 (Level 2 or External or Secondary) Cache
• L3 Cache:
• L3 caches are found on the motherboard rather than the processor. It is
kept between RAM and L2 cache.
• Cache Hit: A request to read from memory which can satisfy from the
cache without using the main memory.
• Cache Miss: A request to read from memory which cannot be satisfied
from the cache, for which the main memory has to be consulted.
• The percentage time cache hit is called as Cache Hit Ratio
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52. BIOS BASICS
•Definition: Basic Input/output System, the BIOS, ROM BIOS, or
System BIOS is a chip located on all motherboards that contain
instructions and setup for how your system should boot and how it
operates.
• The main function of BIOS in a computer is to offer a small library
of basic input/output functions that are used to run and manage
computer peripherals.
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53. BIOS BASICS
• Main functions that the BIOS perform include:
• A power-on self-test (POST) for all of the different hardware components in the
system to make sure everything is working properly
• Activating other BIOS chips on different cards installed in the computer - For
example, SCSI and graphics cards often have their own BIOS chips.
• Providing a set of low-level routines that the operating system uses to interface
to different hardware devices. Managing a collection of settings for the hard
disks, clock, etc.
• The BIOS is special software that interfaces the major hardware components of
your computer with the operating system. It is usually stored on a Flash
memory chip on the motherboard, but sometimes the chip is another type of
ROM.
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54. BIOS BASICS
• CMOS
• The CMOS setup utility is used to setup the hardware configuration of
your computer's motherboard. It's the same function as the BIOS utility.
It has things like disk boot order, RAM settings, and system clock settings
(so your computer knows what time it is).
• “There are some differences between a warm and cold booting. A warm
boot is what happens when a computer is running and it is restarted. A
cold boot is when the computer is already off and the power is turned
on.”
• To boot (also "to boot up") a computer is to load an operating system into
the computer's main memory or random access memory (RAM).
• A bootstrap is the process of starting up a computer. It also refers to the
program that initializes the operating system (OS) during start-up.
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55. Motherboard Selection Criteria
•Knowing What to Look For:
• It helps to think like an engineer when you make your selection. Consider every
aspect and detail of the motherboards in question. For instance, you should consider
present usage as well as any future uses and upgrades. Technical support at a
professional (as opposed to a user) level is extremely important. The following list
includes some of the most important criteria to consider when selecting a
motherboard:
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8. Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
9. Form Factor
10.Built-in Interfaces
11.On-board IDE interfaces
12.Power Management
13.Documentation
14.Technical Support
1. Motherboard Chipset
2. Processor
3. Processor Sockets
4. Motherboard Speed
5. Cache Memory
6. SIMM/DIMM/RIMM memory
7. Bus Type
56. CD/DVD ROM Drive
• Optical Storage:
• Optical technology standard can be divided into three types:
• CD (Compact Disc)
• CD-ROM, is an optical read only storage medium based on the original CD-DA
(Digital Audio) format first developed for the audio CDs
• CD-R (Recordable), CD-RW (Rewritable)
• CD-ROM standard is an 80-minute disc with a data capacity of 700MB
• DVD (Digital Versatile Disc)
• BD (Blue-ray Disc)
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57. CD/DVD ROM Drive
• CD (Compact Disc) ROM Drive
• Construction :
• Made up of polycarbonate wafer, 120mm in diameter and 1.2mm thick with
a 15mm hole in the center
• The Steps in manufacturing CDs
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58. CD/DVD ROM Drive
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CD (Compact Disc) ROM Drive
• Working
59. CD/DVD ROM Drive
• CD (Compact Disc) ROM Drive
• Working
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60. CD/DVD ROM Drive
• DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) ROM Drive
• Construction :
• Click here..
• DVD-5 : 4.7GB, DVD-9 : 8.5GB, DVD-10 : 9.4GB, DVD-18:17.1GB
• Comparison
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62. LCD MONITOR
• Working principle :
• The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an
electric current is applied to them, they tend to untwist.
• Liquid Crystal Display technology works by blocking light.
• LCD is made up of two pieces of polarized glass (also called substrate)
that contain a liquid crystal material between them.
• A backlight creates light that passes through the first substrate.
• This causes a change in the light angle passing through them. At the
same time, electrical currents cause the liquid crystal molecules to
align allow varying levels of light to pass through to the second
substrate & create the color images.
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65. LCD MONITOR
• Characteristics :
1. Dot Pitch: Distance between two adjacent pixel centers.
2. Resolution: It is number of horizontal & vertical pixels.
3. Refresh rate: The refresh rate is the number of times in a second that
display hardware draws the data.
4. Response time: The minimum time necessary change in pixel color or
brightness.
5. Viewable size: CRT monitor gives viewable size in diagonal measures
from 15 inch to 42 inch.
6. Color Support: Number of types of color is supported.
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66. OTHER I/O DEVICES
• KEYBOARD (Membrane & Mechanical Only)
• A keyboard is a typewriter-style device, which uses an arrangement of
buttons or keys, to act as electronic switches.
• Different types of key Switches in Keyboard:
1. Capacitive Key Switch
2. Membrane Key Switch
3. Rubber Dome Key Switch
4. Hall Effect Key Switch
5. Opto-Electronic Key Switch
6. Mechanical Key Switch
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68. OTHER I/O DEVICES
• MEMBRANE KEYBOARD SWITCH
• It is a multi-layer plastic or rubber assembly.
• It is used as keyboard in video game machines, calculators, medical
instruments, cash registers etc.
• Two rubber or plastic sheets are used as row conductor sheet &
column conductor sheet.
• Rows & columns line are made on the plastic or rubber sheet using
silver or some other conductor ink.
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70. OTHER I/O DEVICES
• MECHANICAL KEYBOARD SWITCH
• Two metal pieces or contacts are kept in open position & moved into
closed position when switch is pressed.
• When the switch is in normal position the contact is open, when the
switch is pushed the contact closes, & the closure is sensed by the
keyboard interface.
• After some use contacts become oxidized or dirty & make the switch
useless.
• Gold plating on these contacts is done to improve the life span of the
switch.
• Normal life span of high quality switches is about 1 million keystrokes.
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71. OTHER I/O DEVICES
• MOUSE (Optical Only)
• A computer mouse is an input device that is most often used with a
personal computer.
• Moving a mouse along a flat surface can move the on-screen cursor to
different items on
• the screen. Items can be moved or selected by pressing the mouse
buttons.
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75. OTHER I/O DEVICES
• MOUSE (Optical Only)
• Working:
• In this type of mouse, a light source & photo detector is used with a special
mouse pad.
• When the optical mouse is moved on this special pad, light from the light
source gets reflected from the pad & special photo detector inside the
mouse detects the horizontal & vertical movements.
• Two photo detectors are there, among that one of the photo detectors is
used to detect vertical movement of the cursor on the screen & the other is
used to detect the horizontal movement of the cursor on the screen.
• The movement of the cursor on the screen depends on the number of the
signals that is passed to the PC through the wire connected with the mouse.
• The PC, in turn, passes them to the mouse driver software which then
converts the distance, & speed required for the movement of the screen
cursor.
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77. OTHER I/O DEVICES
• PRINTER (Dot Matrix, Inkjet & Laser Only)
• Printers are Output devices used to prepare permanent Output devices
on paper. Printers can be divided into two main categories:
• Impact Printers: In this hammers or pins strike against a
ribbon and paper to print the text. This mechanism is known
as electro-mechanical mechanism.
• Non-Impact Printers: There printers use non-Impact
technology such as ink-jet or laser technology. There printers
provide better quality of O/P at higher speed.
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