Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems, Multicomputer System
Introduction, Memory Hierarchy, Random Access Memory (RAM), Types of RAM, Read Only Memory (ROM), Types of ROM. Introduction, Classification of Secondary Storage Devices, Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magneto Optical disk.
Number System, Conversion, Decimal to Binary, Decimal to Octal, Decimal to Binary, Decimal to HexaDecimal, Binary to Decimal, Octal to Decimal, Hexadecimal to Decimal, Binary to Octal, Binary to Hexadecimal, Octal to Hexadecimal, BCD, Binary Addition
The document discusses processing devices and central processing units (CPUs). It describes a CPU as having three main parts: registers that hold information for processing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs calculations and comparisons, and a control unit that directs the system. The document outlines the evolution of CPUs from early chips like the Intel 4004 to modern multi-core processors. Buses connect the CPU and memory to transfer data and instructions for processing.
The document describes the memory hierarchy in computers from fastest to slowest: CPU caches (L1, L2, L3), main memory (RAM), virtual memory, and permanent storage (hard disks). L1 cache is built into the CPU and holds frequently used data for very fast access. Main memory (RAM) is where operating systems and active programs are run but is slower than cache. Virtual memory manages RAM use through disk storage. Permanent storage on disks retains data even when powered off but is the slowest to access.
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, provide information (output), and store the information for future use
Random access memory, or RAM, is a hardware device that allows information to be stored and retrieved on a computer. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it does not retain data when power is turned off. There are two main types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) which is faster but more expensive, and dynamic RAM (DRAM) which is slower but less expensive and more commonly used. RAM is used for temporary storage and working space for the operating system and applications, and its data can be accessed in any order, giving it its name random access memory.
THIS SLIDE INCLUDES DEFINITION AND USE OF 4 COMPUTER MEMORY. THIS IS FOR ACADEMIC STUDY WHICH DESCRIBES ABOUT TYPES, ADVANTAGES, AND DISADVANTAGES OF MEMORY
The CPU, or central processing unit, is the brain of the computer that performs all data processing and controls other parts. It contains at least one processor chip that can have multiple processing cores and operates at a clock speed measured in megahertz or gigahertz. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, decodes and executes them by performing calculations in its arithmetic logic unit and control unit, and stores results back in memory. It has registers for temporary storage and a memory unit for primary storage.
Introduction, Memory Hierarchy, Random Access Memory (RAM), Types of RAM, Read Only Memory (ROM), Types of ROM. Introduction, Classification of Secondary Storage Devices, Magnetic Tape, Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, Magneto Optical disk.
Number System, Conversion, Decimal to Binary, Decimal to Octal, Decimal to Binary, Decimal to HexaDecimal, Binary to Decimal, Octal to Decimal, Hexadecimal to Decimal, Binary to Octal, Binary to Hexadecimal, Octal to Hexadecimal, BCD, Binary Addition
The document discusses processing devices and central processing units (CPUs). It describes a CPU as having three main parts: registers that hold information for processing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs calculations and comparisons, and a control unit that directs the system. The document outlines the evolution of CPUs from early chips like the Intel 4004 to modern multi-core processors. Buses connect the CPU and memory to transfer data and instructions for processing.
The document describes the memory hierarchy in computers from fastest to slowest: CPU caches (L1, L2, L3), main memory (RAM), virtual memory, and permanent storage (hard disks). L1 cache is built into the CPU and holds frequently used data for very fast access. Main memory (RAM) is where operating systems and active programs are run but is slower than cache. Virtual memory manages RAM use through disk storage. Permanent storage on disks retains data even when powered off but is the slowest to access.
A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules, provide information (output), and store the information for future use
Random access memory, or RAM, is a hardware device that allows information to be stored and retrieved on a computer. RAM is volatile memory, meaning it does not retain data when power is turned off. There are two main types of RAM: static RAM (SRAM) which is faster but more expensive, and dynamic RAM (DRAM) which is slower but less expensive and more commonly used. RAM is used for temporary storage and working space for the operating system and applications, and its data can be accessed in any order, giving it its name random access memory.
THIS SLIDE INCLUDES DEFINITION AND USE OF 4 COMPUTER MEMORY. THIS IS FOR ACADEMIC STUDY WHICH DESCRIBES ABOUT TYPES, ADVANTAGES, AND DISADVANTAGES OF MEMORY
The CPU, or central processing unit, is the brain of the computer that performs all data processing and controls other parts. It contains at least one processor chip that can have multiple processing cores and operates at a clock speed measured in megahertz or gigahertz. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, decodes and executes them by performing calculations in its arithmetic logic unit and control unit, and stores results back in memory. It has registers for temporary storage and a memory unit for primary storage.
The document discusses different types of motherboards including integrated, non-integrated, desktop, laptop, and server motherboards. It describes the main components of a motherboard including the CPU socket, memory slots, chipset, expansion slots, BIOS, and I/O ports. Key factors to consider when selecting a motherboard are the form factor, CPU support, BIOS type, case compatibility, and warranty.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Main memory consists of storage locations that can be uniquely addressed and hold data in the form of words. The two main types of main memory are RAM and ROM. RAM is volatile and used to store running programs and data, while ROM is non-volatile and used for firmware like the bootstrap loader. Cache memory and processor registers provide even faster temporary storage than main memory to improve system performance. Virtual memory uses the hard disk as an extension of main memory when RAM is insufficient. The closer the storage is to the processor, the faster the access speed.
RAM, or Random Access Memory, is a type of data storage used in computers that is located on the motherboard and allows quick access by the processor. There are two main types of RAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory). DRAM needs to be refreshed often and uses a single transistor and capacitor per bit, while SRAM does not need to be refreshed and uses an array of six transistors per bit, making it faster to access but more expensive than DRAM.
The document discusses RAM and ROM memory. RAM (random access memory) is the main memory of a computer system, used to temporarily store data and instructions. It is volatile memory that allows reading and writing. ROM (read only memory) is permanent memory where instructions cannot be changed; it is used to store basic input/output functions. The document outlines the structure of memory chips and different types of RAM like DRAM and SRAM and ROM.
Primary memory, also known as main memory, is the memory that is directly accessible by the CPU. It holds the data and instructions currently being processed. Primary memory is generally made up of semiconductor devices like RAM and ROM. RAM is volatile and loses its data when power is removed, while ROM retains its data permanently. There are different types of RAM such as SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM, and DDR that have evolved over time. ROM includes mask ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and flash ROM, which have different characteristics regarding read/write capabilities and whether they need power to retain data.
This document discusses different types of RAM. It begins by introducing RAM as random access memory that can be accessed in any order and location. The two main types are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM is more expensive but has very low access times, while DRAM is lower cost but needs periodic refreshing. The document then describes different variants of DRAM over time that provide faster access, including FPM, EDO, SDRAM, DDR, DDR2 and RDRAM.
Storage provides capacity for files and information through devices like hard disks, while memory provides working space through RAM. Primary storage includes RAM and cache for running the computer, while secondary storage is long-term storage like hard disks. RAM is volatile memory used for running programs, coming in static RAM and dynamic RAM forms. ROM is read-only memory storing basic instructions. Cache memory improves performance by storing frequently used data and instructions. Optical storage includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays, while magnetic storage encompasses floppy disks and hard disks. Flash memory offers portable options like USB drives and solid-state drives.
The document discusses different types of computer memory. It describes primary memory (RAM) which can be accessed directly by the CPU and secondary memory (hard drives, optical disks) which requires primary memory to access. Volatile memory like RAM loses data when powered off, while non-volatile memory like hard drives retain data without power. Common secondary storage devices include hard disk drives which use spinning magnetic platters, optical disks like CDs and DVDs which use lasers to read and write data in pits and lands, and magnetic floppy disks. The document also discusses error correction techniques used in hard drives to detect and fix errors and extend the drive's usable life.
This presentation provides an overview of motherboard components and functions. It describes the main components including the CPU socket, memory slots, chipset, BIOS, expansion slots, and input/output ports. It explains that the motherboard connects the central processing unit and other internal components to enable communication within the computer. Form factors like ATX and microATX determine the motherboard size and compatibility. Selecting a motherboard involves considering the CPU, case, expansion needs and warranty.
The document discusses the memory hierarchy in computers. It explains that main memory communicates directly with the CPU, while auxiliary memory devices like magnetic tapes and disks provide backup storage. The total memory is organized in a hierarchy from slow but high-capacity auxiliary devices to faster main memory to an even smaller and faster cache memory. The goal is to maximize access speed while minimizing costs. Cache memory helps speed access to frequently used data and programs.
The CPU interprets instructions and performs logical and arithmetic operations to control the computer. It follows a machine cycle of fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, executing the operations, and storing results. The CPU consists of a control unit that manages resources and a machine cycle, and an ALU that performs arithmetic and logical functions according to the control unit's instructions.
This document discusses computer memory and storage. It defines primary and secondary memory, and describes their key differences. Primary memory, also called main memory, is volatile and used for processing. It has high access speeds but limited capacity. Secondary memory is non-volatile and used for long-term storage of large volumes of data. Common types of primary memory include RAM, ROM, and cache. Common forms of secondary memory include hard disks, optical disks, magnetic tapes, USB drives, and cloud storage. The document evaluates various storage media and provides details on their characteristics like capacity, access times, and usage.
The document discusses the history and types of computer memory. It describes how early memory in the 1940s had a capacity of only a few bytes. The ENIAC was the first electronic, general-purpose computer capable of being reprogrammed. Delay line memory was an early form that stored data as acoustic waves in mercury delay lines. Magnetic core memory, developed in 1947, allowed memory to be retained after power loss and became the dominant memory technology of the 1960s. Modern computers use semiconductor memory such as RAM, ROM, cache memory, and flash memory. RAM allows random access and comes in dynamic and static varieties, while ROM is read-only and flash memory is non-volatile.
This document discusses the components and structure of a hard disk drive. It begins by defining a hard disk drive as a data storage device that uses rapidly rotating disks coated with magnetic material to store and retrieve data in a random access manner. The key components of a hard disk drive are then outlined, including disk platters, stepper motors, spindle motors, read/write heads, and arms. The document also explains the disk structure of tracks, sectors, and cylinders. It concludes by noting how hard disks have revolutionized data storage and the digital age.
Memory is essential for computers and comes in three main types: primary, cache, and secondary. Primary memory (RAM) is directly accessible by the CPU and comes in volatile forms like DRAM and SRAM. Cache memory improves access speed and can be L1/L2 caches. Secondary memory (hard disks, DVDs) provides large storage but is slower to access. The document discusses these memory types in detail along with their technologies and principles.
RAM is used for temporary storage of running programs. There are two main types of RAM: SDRAM and DDR RAM. SDRAM is commonly used in older PIII motherboards at speeds ranging from 66MHz to 133MHz, while DDR RAM is faster and used in newer P4 motherboards at speeds from 266MHz to 800MHz. Common RAM errors include failure to display with beeps, blank screen, misreported RAM size, and memory errors. These errors can be caused by incorrect configuration, installation issues, or faulty RAM. The solutions include confirming the configuration, checking the RAM installation, and potentially replacing damaged RAM.
Introduction, Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems.
This document provides an overview of various computer devices and components. It discusses the central processing unit (CPU) which includes the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU). It also describes different types of computer memory including primary memory like random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM), as well as secondary storage devices. Finally, it lists several common input/output and network devices.
The document discusses different types of motherboards including integrated, non-integrated, desktop, laptop, and server motherboards. It describes the main components of a motherboard including the CPU socket, memory slots, chipset, expansion slots, BIOS, and I/O ports. Key factors to consider when selecting a motherboard are the form factor, CPU support, BIOS type, case compatibility, and warranty.
This document discusses the basic organization and design of computers. It covers topics such as architecture versus organization, functional units like the arithmetic logic unit and control unit, instruction formats, processor registers, stored program concepts, basic operational concepts like loading and storing data, memory access, and factors that impact performance such as pipelining and instruction set design. The document provides an overview of fundamental computer hardware components and operations.
Main memory consists of storage locations that can be uniquely addressed and hold data in the form of words. The two main types of main memory are RAM and ROM. RAM is volatile and used to store running programs and data, while ROM is non-volatile and used for firmware like the bootstrap loader. Cache memory and processor registers provide even faster temporary storage than main memory to improve system performance. Virtual memory uses the hard disk as an extension of main memory when RAM is insufficient. The closer the storage is to the processor, the faster the access speed.
RAM, or Random Access Memory, is a type of data storage used in computers that is located on the motherboard and allows quick access by the processor. There are two main types of RAM: DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory) and SRAM (Static Random Access Memory). DRAM needs to be refreshed often and uses a single transistor and capacitor per bit, while SRAM does not need to be refreshed and uses an array of six transistors per bit, making it faster to access but more expensive than DRAM.
The document discusses RAM and ROM memory. RAM (random access memory) is the main memory of a computer system, used to temporarily store data and instructions. It is volatile memory that allows reading and writing. ROM (read only memory) is permanent memory where instructions cannot be changed; it is used to store basic input/output functions. The document outlines the structure of memory chips and different types of RAM like DRAM and SRAM and ROM.
Primary memory, also known as main memory, is the memory that is directly accessible by the CPU. It holds the data and instructions currently being processed. Primary memory is generally made up of semiconductor devices like RAM and ROM. RAM is volatile and loses its data when power is removed, while ROM retains its data permanently. There are different types of RAM such as SRAM, DRAM, SDRAM, and DDR that have evolved over time. ROM includes mask ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, and flash ROM, which have different characteristics regarding read/write capabilities and whether they need power to retain data.
This document discusses different types of RAM. It begins by introducing RAM as random access memory that can be accessed in any order and location. The two main types are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM (DRAM). SRAM is more expensive but has very low access times, while DRAM is lower cost but needs periodic refreshing. The document then describes different variants of DRAM over time that provide faster access, including FPM, EDO, SDRAM, DDR, DDR2 and RDRAM.
Storage provides capacity for files and information through devices like hard disks, while memory provides working space through RAM. Primary storage includes RAM and cache for running the computer, while secondary storage is long-term storage like hard disks. RAM is volatile memory used for running programs, coming in static RAM and dynamic RAM forms. ROM is read-only memory storing basic instructions. Cache memory improves performance by storing frequently used data and instructions. Optical storage includes CDs, DVDs, and Blu-rays, while magnetic storage encompasses floppy disks and hard disks. Flash memory offers portable options like USB drives and solid-state drives.
The document discusses different types of computer memory. It describes primary memory (RAM) which can be accessed directly by the CPU and secondary memory (hard drives, optical disks) which requires primary memory to access. Volatile memory like RAM loses data when powered off, while non-volatile memory like hard drives retain data without power. Common secondary storage devices include hard disk drives which use spinning magnetic platters, optical disks like CDs and DVDs which use lasers to read and write data in pits and lands, and magnetic floppy disks. The document also discusses error correction techniques used in hard drives to detect and fix errors and extend the drive's usable life.
This presentation provides an overview of motherboard components and functions. It describes the main components including the CPU socket, memory slots, chipset, BIOS, expansion slots, and input/output ports. It explains that the motherboard connects the central processing unit and other internal components to enable communication within the computer. Form factors like ATX and microATX determine the motherboard size and compatibility. Selecting a motherboard involves considering the CPU, case, expansion needs and warranty.
The document discusses the memory hierarchy in computers. It explains that main memory communicates directly with the CPU, while auxiliary memory devices like magnetic tapes and disks provide backup storage. The total memory is organized in a hierarchy from slow but high-capacity auxiliary devices to faster main memory to an even smaller and faster cache memory. The goal is to maximize access speed while minimizing costs. Cache memory helps speed access to frequently used data and programs.
The CPU interprets instructions and performs logical and arithmetic operations to control the computer. It follows a machine cycle of fetching instructions from memory, decoding them, executing the operations, and storing results. The CPU consists of a control unit that manages resources and a machine cycle, and an ALU that performs arithmetic and logical functions according to the control unit's instructions.
This document discusses computer memory and storage. It defines primary and secondary memory, and describes their key differences. Primary memory, also called main memory, is volatile and used for processing. It has high access speeds but limited capacity. Secondary memory is non-volatile and used for long-term storage of large volumes of data. Common types of primary memory include RAM, ROM, and cache. Common forms of secondary memory include hard disks, optical disks, magnetic tapes, USB drives, and cloud storage. The document evaluates various storage media and provides details on their characteristics like capacity, access times, and usage.
The document discusses the history and types of computer memory. It describes how early memory in the 1940s had a capacity of only a few bytes. The ENIAC was the first electronic, general-purpose computer capable of being reprogrammed. Delay line memory was an early form that stored data as acoustic waves in mercury delay lines. Magnetic core memory, developed in 1947, allowed memory to be retained after power loss and became the dominant memory technology of the 1960s. Modern computers use semiconductor memory such as RAM, ROM, cache memory, and flash memory. RAM allows random access and comes in dynamic and static varieties, while ROM is read-only and flash memory is non-volatile.
This document discusses the components and structure of a hard disk drive. It begins by defining a hard disk drive as a data storage device that uses rapidly rotating disks coated with magnetic material to store and retrieve data in a random access manner. The key components of a hard disk drive are then outlined, including disk platters, stepper motors, spindle motors, read/write heads, and arms. The document also explains the disk structure of tracks, sectors, and cylinders. It concludes by noting how hard disks have revolutionized data storage and the digital age.
Memory is essential for computers and comes in three main types: primary, cache, and secondary. Primary memory (RAM) is directly accessible by the CPU and comes in volatile forms like DRAM and SRAM. Cache memory improves access speed and can be L1/L2 caches. Secondary memory (hard disks, DVDs) provides large storage but is slower to access. The document discusses these memory types in detail along with their technologies and principles.
RAM is used for temporary storage of running programs. There are two main types of RAM: SDRAM and DDR RAM. SDRAM is commonly used in older PIII motherboards at speeds ranging from 66MHz to 133MHz, while DDR RAM is faster and used in newer P4 motherboards at speeds from 266MHz to 800MHz. Common RAM errors include failure to display with beeps, blank screen, misreported RAM size, and memory errors. These errors can be caused by incorrect configuration, installation issues, or faulty RAM. The solutions include confirming the configuration, checking the RAM installation, and potentially replacing damaged RAM.
Introduction, Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory, Communication between Various Units of a Computer System, The Instruction Format, Instruction Set, Processor Speed, Multiprocessor Systems.
This document provides an overview of various computer devices and components. It discusses the central processing unit (CPU) which includes the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU). It also describes different types of computer memory including primary memory like random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM), as well as secondary storage devices. Finally, it lists several common input/output and network devices.
This document provides an overview of the basic components and operations of a computer system. It discusses how a computer system is composed of input, output, processing, memory, and controlling units. The central processing unit (CPU) acts as the brain and contains the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit to process data. Memory, including primary memory like RAM and ROM, is used to store programs and data both temporarily for processing and more permanently. Input and output devices allow the user to interface with the computer system by entering and receiving data. The five basic operations of a computer system are inputting, storing, processing, outputting, and controlling data.
The document discusses the functional units of a computer system. It describes the five main components: the input unit, central processing unit (CPU), memory unit, arithmetic & logical unit, and output unit. The CPU contains the arithmetic logic unit, memory unit, and control unit. The control unit manages data transfer between units and obtains instructions from memory. The arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logic operations. The memory unit temporarily stores running programs and data. The input unit allows data entry, while the output unit receives data from the CPU and translates it into audio, visual or printed output. All units communicate via a common bus system.
IT refers to technologies that allow users to record, store, process, transmit, and receive information. A computer takes data as input, transforms it according to stored instructions, and outputs the processed information. The central processing unit (CPU) controls and manipulates data in a computer's memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control unit. The control unit obtains and interprets instructions to notify other components, while the ALU performs logical and arithmetic operations. Memory stores programs and data during processing in volatile, randomly accessible locations. Input and output units convert and display data. Secondary storage provides long-term, non-volatile data storage outside the CPU.
This document provides an introduction to computing by discussing the basic components and functions of a computer system. It defines a computer as an electronic device that accepts raw data as input, processes it according to instructions, and produces the desired output. The key components discussed include input/output devices, storage devices, the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM and ROM), and how computer memory is measured. The document also provides a brief history of computing and explains how computers are programmed using software to process specific jobs.
fundamentals of digital communication unit 2 notes.pdfshubhangisonawane6
The document discusses different types of computer memory including primary and secondary memory. Primary memory includes RAM and ROM. RAM is volatile and used for temporary storage of data and instructions during processing. ROM is non-volatile and stores permanent programs like the BIOS. Secondary storage includes hard disks and optical disks for permanent storage of data. The CPU uses registers in RAM for processing and interacts with RAM faster than secondary storage.
This document provides an overview of computer system hardware. It discusses the central processing unit (CPU), which consists of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU). The CPU executes instructions stored in memory and includes registers for temporary storage. The document describes the components of the ALU and control signals used by the CU. It also discusses the memory hierarchy including cache, primary memory like RAM and ROM, and secondary storage. The document outlines how these components are interconnected via buses and how instructions are executed in each step of the instruction cycle.
Computer Architecture and Organization.pptxLearnersCoach
Computer architecture is the definition of basic attributes of hardware components and their interconnections, in order to achieve certain specified goals in terms of functions and performance. Computer Architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program. Examples:
- the instruction set
- the number of bits used to represent various data types
- I/O mechanisms
- memory addressing techniques
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture/
Computer organization: the design and physical arrangement of various hardware units to work in tandem, in a orderly manner, in order to achieve the goals specified in the architecture.
Read More: https://www.learnerscoach.co.ke/introduction-to-computer-architecture-part2/
The document discusses the basic organization and operations of a computer system. It describes the five basic operations of inputting, storing, processing, outputting, and controlling. It then explains the basic components of a computer system including the input unit, output unit, storage unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and central processing unit. It defines primary and secondary storage and describes the functions of the input, output, and storage units.
The document discusses how computers represent and store data. Computers use binary digits (bits) represented as electrical voltages to store all types of data. Bits are grouped into bytes of 8 bits to represent characters, numbers, images, sound etc. Memory is measured in bytes, kilobytes and megabytes. RAM is volatile memory that temporarily stores active data and programs, while ROM permanently stores basic startup instructions. Caches improve performance by storing frequently used data closer to the CPU.
The document summarizes the Von Neumann architecture, which is a design model for stored programs. It describes the key components of the architecture including the input/output subsystem, central processing unit (CPU), arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and main memory. The CPU is where computations take place via four main functions: fetch, decode, execute, and write back. The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations while the control unit coordinates activity within the CPU. The main memory is divided into volatile RAM and non-volatile ROM for temporary and permanent storage.
The CPU, or central processing unit, is the brain of the computer that performs all data processing and controls other parts. It contains at least one processor chip that can have multiple processing cores and operates at a clock speed measured in megahertz or gigahertz. The CPU fetches instructions from memory, decodes and executes them by performing calculations in its arithmetic logic unit and control unit, and stores results back in memory. It has registers for temporary storage and a memory unit for primary storage.
This document discusses the fundamental units of a computer. It identifies the main components as the input unit, central processing unit (CPU), memory unit, arithmetic and logical unit, control unit, and output unit. The input unit takes in data through devices like keyboards and mice. The memory unit stores programs and data in primary and secondary memory. The CPU contains the arithmetic logical unit for calculations and the control unit for coordinating operations. It concludes by defining the basic functions of the computer's main parts.
The document discusses the central processing unit (CPU) and its components, functions, and operation. It describes how the CPU reads and executes program instructions, performs calculations, and controls devices. It discusses the CPU's main components like registers, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and their functions. It explains how the CPU fetches, decodes, executes instructions, and returns results in a four phase process using clock pulses and memory units like RAM, ROM, and cache.
This document provides an overview of the key components and operations of a basic computer system. It discusses that a computer is a programmable machine that can perform arithmetic and logical operations automatically. The three main components are the input, processing, and output units. The input unit accepts instructions and data and converts it to a computer-readable format. The processing unit, or central processing unit (CPU), carries out the program instructions and includes an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit. The output unit converts results into a human readable format. Other components discussed include primary memory (RAM), secondary memory (hard disks), and storage units that hold data and instructions.
This document defines a computer system and its basic components. It explains that a computer accepts data as input, processes it, stores the information, and outputs it. The three major components are hardware, software, and peopleware. It then discusses the central processing unit, memory units, input/output devices, and storage devices that make up basic computer hardware. The CPU contains an arithmetic logic unit and control unit that execute stored instructions. Memory includes volatile RAM and non-volatile ROM. The BIOS checks components at startup and loads the operating system. Input devices send data for processing while output devices display processed results.
This document provides information about various Microsoft Word features and computer fundamentals. It discusses endnotes and footnotes in Word, how to add headers and footers, the utility of mail merge, and how to record and use macros. It also defines what a computer is, describes its characteristics and components in a block diagram. Finally, it explains different types of computer memory like RAM, ROM, cache memory, and external memory.
Basic of R Programming Language,
Introduction, How to run R, R Sessions and Functions, Basic Math, Variables, Data Types, Vectors, Conclusion, Advanced Data Structures, Data Frames, Lists, Matrices, Arrays, Classes
Basic of R Programming Language
R is a programming language and environment commonly used in statistical computing, data analytics and scientific research.
HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE OF PARALLEL COMPUTING, THE CLOUD COMPUTING REFERENCE MODEL, BUILDING CLOUD COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT, INFRASTRUCTURE AND SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT, HARDWARE ARCHITECTURES FOR PARALLEL PROCESSING APPROACHES TO
PARALLEL PROGRAMMING,
1. Single-Instruction, Single-Data (SISD) Systems
2. Single-Instruction, Multiple-Data (SIMD) Systems
3. Multiple-Instruction, Single-Data (MISD) Systems
4. Multiple-Instruction, Multiple-Data (MIMD) Systems
Data Link layer design issues, Error Detection and Correction, Elementary Data Link protocols: Unrestricted simplex protocol, Simplex stop-and-wait protocol, Simplex protocol for a noisy channel; Sliding Window protocols: One-bit sliding window protocol, Protocol using Go back N, Example.
Data link protocol: Higher Level Data Link Control, Data link layer in the internet. Internetworking and Advanced Internetworking Switching and Bridging, Basic Internetworking (IP), Routing, The Global Internet, Routing among Mobile Devices
Sensors in Different Application Area Topics Covered: Occupancy and Motion Detectors; Position, Displacement, and Level; Velocity and Acceleration; Force, Strain, and Tactile Sensors; Pressure Sensors, Temperature Sensors
Topics: Interface Electronic Circuits, Input Characteristics of Interface Circuits, Amplifiers, Excitation Circuits, Analog to Digital Converters, Direct Digitization and Processing, Bridge Circuits, Data Transmission, Batteries for Low Power Sensors
Sensors fundamentals and characteristics, physical principle of sensingSweta Kumari Barnwal
Sensors, Signals and Systems; Sensor Classification; Units of Measurements; Sensor Characteristics; Electric Charges, Fields and Potentials Capacitance; Magnetism Induction, Resistance; Piezoelectric Effect, Hall Effect, Temperature and Thermal Properties of Material, Heat Transfer, Light, Dynamic Models of Sensor Elements
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital systems. The main logic gates are AND, OR, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates. Each gate has 1 or more inputs and 1 output, with the output determined by the inputs based on the gate's logic. NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates because combinations of them can be used to perform the logic of all the basic gates.
This document provides descriptions of key features and tools in the Windows operating system, including the Control Panel, Desktop, Device Manager, Disk Cleanup, Event Viewer, File Explorer, Internet browsers, Microsoft Paint, Notepad, Notification Area, Power User Tasks Menu, Registry Editor, Settings, Start menu, System Information, Taskbar, Task Manager, Windows search box, and Cortana. It explains what each feature is used for and how to access it in Windows.
OPERATING SYSTEM AND SERVICES
TOPICS
1 Dos – History, Files and Directories
2 Internal and External Commands
3 Batch Files
4 Types of O.S.
Assignment:
• Draw the block diagram for computers and explain the various the components in few words, viz. Input, Storage, Processing, Output and Control
TOPICS
1 Introduction, Characteristics of Computers, Block Diagram of Computer
2 Types of Computers and Features
3 Types of Programming Languages
4 Data Organization, Types of Memory (Primary and Secondary)
5 I/O Devices, Number System
Standard Client / Server Protocols: Worldwide- web and HTTP,FTP, Electronic mail, Telnet, Secured Shell, Domain name system. Application layer: DNS: Name space – domain name space – distribution of name space Electronic mail Architecture – FILE transfer: FTP WWW and HTTP: Architecture – web documents – HTTP Network Security: Introduction - definitions – two categories - symmetric key cryptography – traditional ciphers – asymmetric key cryptography
Introduction to the Network Layer: Network layer services, packet switching, network layer performance, IPv4 addressing, forwarding of IP packets, Internet Protocol, ICMPv4, Mobile IP Unicast Routing: Introduction, routing algorithms, unicast routing protocols. Next generation IP: IPv6 addressing, IPv6 protocol, ICMPv6 protocol, transition from IPv4 to IPv6. Introduction to the Transport Layer: Introduction, Transport layer protocols (Simple protocol, Stop-and-wait protocol, Go-Back-n protocol, Selective repeat protocol, Bidirectional protocols), Transport layer services, User datagram protocol, Transmission control protocol
This document discusses security considerations for cloud computing. It covers security challenges like privacy, portability, interoperability, reliability and availability. It also discusses security planning, boundaries based on infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS) and software as a service (SaaS) models. Additional topics include data security, software as a service security, security monitoring, and security architecture design.
Ethical Hacking Concepts and Scopes, Threats and Attack Vectors, Information Assurance, Threat Modelling
Enterprise Information Security Architecture, Vulnerability
Assessment and Penetration Testing
Types of Social Engineering, Insider Attack, Preventing Insider
Threats, Social Engineering Targets and Defence Strategies
This document discusses different types of cloud services including Software as a Service (SaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Database as a Service (DaaS), and Monitoring as a Service. It describes the key characteristics and advantages of each service type. Some potential issues and disadvantages are also outlined such as security concerns, vendor lock-in, and network dependence. Examples of major cloud service providers are provided for each service layer including Google, Amazon, Microsoft, and Salesforce.
VIRTUALIZATION: Basics of Virtualization, Types of Virtualizations, Implementation Levels of Virtualization, Virtualization Structures, Tools and Mechanisms, Virtualization of CPU, Memory, I/O Devices, Virtual Clusters and Resource management, Virtualization for Data-center Automation, Introduction to MapReduce, GFS, HDFS, Hadoop, Framework.)
Process Improvement: Process and product quality, Process Classification, Process Measurement, Process Analysis and Modeling, Process Change, The CMMI Process Improvement Framework.
Service Oriented Software Engineering: Services as reusable components, Service Engineering, Software Development with Services.
What is Computer, Functionalities of a computer, Computer Components, Hardware, software, Input Devices, Output Devices, CPU (Central Processing Unit), Memory, Unit of Measurements, Classification of Computers, Computer Languages, Generation of Computers, Data, Information and Knowledge, Characteristics of Computer, Computer Viruses,
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
1. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 1
CONTROL PROCESSING UNIT
Computers require input hardware, processing hardware and output hardware. The hardware
that defines a computer is the CPU and memory. Without these a computer could not function.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
• Memory or Storage Unit
• Control Unit
• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
2. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 2
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information
to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the
main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
• It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
• It stores intermediate results of processing.
• It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units
of a computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation
of the computer.
• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
• It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
• Arithmetic Section
• Logic Section
Arithmetic Section: Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section: Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.
MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
3. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 3
required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory
size minus one. For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 *
1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up the CPU. It
acts as a buffer between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data
and program which are most frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are
transferred from the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows −
• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows −
4. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 4
• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main memory. It is divided into two
subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory
• These are semiconductor memories.
• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the
main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output routines. The contents
of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access
it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
5. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 5
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
• These are magnetic and optical memories.
• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
Communication Between Various Units of a Computer System
A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory, arithmetic
logic unit (ALU), output and control unit.
6. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 6
Computer systems consist of three components as shown in below image: Central Processing
Unit, Input devices and Output devices. Input devices provide data input to processor,
which processes data and generates useful information that’s displayed to the user through
output devices. This is stored in computer’s memory.
Central Processing Unit
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called "the brain of computer" as it controls operation
of all parts of computer. It consists of two components: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and
Control Unit.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Data entered into computer is sent to RAM, from where it is then sent to ALU, where rest of
data processing takes place. All types of processing, such as comparisons, decision-making
and processing of non-numeric information takes place here and once again data is moved to
RAM.
Control Unit
As name indicates, this part of CPU extracts instructions, performs execution, maintains and
directs operations of entire system.
Functions of Control Unit
Control unit performs following functions −
• It controls all activities of computer
• Supervises flow of data within CPU
• Directs flow of data within CPU
7. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 7
• Transfers data to Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• Transfers results to memory
• Fetches results from memory to output devices
Memory Unit
This is unit in which data and instructions given to computer as well as results given by
computer are stored. Unit of memory is "Byte".
1 Byte = 8 Bits
The Instruction Format:
A computer performs a task based on the instruction provided. Instruction in computers
comprises groups called fields. These fields contain different information as for computers
everything is in 0 and 1 so each field has different significance based on which a CPU decides
what to perform. The most common fields are:
• Operation field specifies the operation to be performed like addition.
• Address field which contains the location of the operand, i.e., register or memory
location.
• Mode field which specifies how operand is to be founded.
Instruction is of variable length depending upon the number of addresses it contains.
Generally, CPU organization is of three types based on the number of address fields:
1. Single Accumulator organization
2. General register organization
3. Stack organization
In the first organization, the operation is done involving a special register called the
accumulator. In second on multiple registers are used for the computation purpose. In the
third organization the work on stack basis operation due to which it does not contain any
address field. Only a single organization doesn’t need to be applied, a blend of various
organizations is mostly what we see generally.
Based on the number of address, instructions are classified as:
Note that we will use X = (A+B)*(C+D) expression to showcase the procedure.
1. Zero Address Instructions –
8. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 8
A stack-based computer does not use the address field in the instruction. To evaluate an
expression first it is converted to reverse Polish Notation i.e. Postfix Notation.
Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
Postfixed : X = AB+CD+*
TOP means top of stack
M[X] is any memory location
PUSH A TOP = A
PUSH B TOP = B
ADD TOP = A+B
PUSH C TOP = C
PUSH D TOP = D
ADD TOP = C+D
MUL TOP = (C+D)*(A+B)
POP X M[X] = TOP
2 .One Address Instructions – This uses an implied ACCUMULATOR register for data
manipulation. One operand is in the accumulator and the other is in the register or memory
location. Implied means that the CPU already knows that one operand is in the accumulator
so there is no need to specify it.
9. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 9
Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
AC is accumulator
M[] is any memory location
M[T] is temporary location
LOAD A AC = M[A]
ADD B AC = AC + M[B]
STORE T M[T] = AC
LOAD C AC = M[C]
ADD D AC = AC + M[D]
MUL T AC = AC * M[T]
STORE X M[X] = AC
3.Two Address Instructions – This is common in commercial computers. Here two
addresses can be specified in the instruction. Unlike earlier in one address instruction, the
result was stored in the accumulator, here the result can be stored at different locations rather
than just accumulators, but require more number of bit to represent address.
Here destination address can also contain operand.
Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
R1, R2 are registers
M[] is any memory location
10. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 10
MOV R1, A R1 = M[A]
ADD R1, B R1 = R1 + M[B]
MOV R2, C R2 = C
ADD R2, D R2 = R2 + D
MUL R1, R2 R1 = R1 * R2
MOV X, R1 M[X] = R1
4.Three Address Instructions – This has three address field to specify a register or a
memory location. Program created are much short in size but number of bits per instruction
increase. These instructions make creation of program much easier but it does not mean that
program will run much faster because now instruction only contain more information but
each micro operation (changing content of register, loading address in address bus etc.) will
be performed in one cycle only.
Expression: X = (A+B)*(C+D)
R1, R2 are registers
M[] is any memory location
ADD R1, A, B R1 = M[A] + M[B]
ADD R2, C, D R2 = M[C] + M[D]
MUL X, R1, R2 M[X] = R1 * R2
11. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 11
Instruction Set:
An instruction set is a group of commands for a CPU in machine language. The term can refer
to all possible instructions for a CPU or a subset of instructions to enhance its performance in
certain situations.
All CPUs have instruction sets that enable commands to the processor directing the CPU to
switch the relevant transistors. Some instructions are simple read, write and move commands
that direct data to different hardware.
There are various popular instruction sets that are used in the industry and are of theoretical
importance. Each one has its own usage and advantages. Following are the instruction set
architectures:
• Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
• Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
• Minimal instruction set computers (MISC)
• Very long instruction word (VLIW)
• Explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC)
• One instruction set computer (OISC)
• Zero instruction set computer (ZISC)
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) is an instruction set architecture (ISA) which has
fewer cycles per instruction (CPI) than a complex instruction set computer (CISC). RISC
processors are also used in supercomputers such as Summit, which, as of November 2018, is
the world's fastest supercomputer as ranked by the TOP500 project.
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)
Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is an instruction set architecture (ISA) which has
fewer instructions per program than a Reduced instruction set computer (RISC).
Minimal instruction set computers (MISC)
Minimal instruction set computers (MISC) is a processor architecture with a very small number
of basic instruction operations and corresponding opcodes. As a result of this is a smaller
instruction set, a smaller and faster instruction set decode unit, and faster operation of
individual instructions. The disadvantage is that smaller instruction set always have more
sequential dependencies, reducing instruction-level parallelism.
Very long instruction word (VLIW)
Very long instruction word (VLIW) is an instruction set architectures designed to exploit
instruction level parallelism (ILP). Central processing units (CPU, processor) mostly allow
programs to specify instructions to execute in sequence only, a VLIW processor allows
12. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 12
programs to explicitly specify instructions to execute in parallel. This design is intended to
allow higher performance without the complexity inherent in some other designs.
Explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC)
Explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC) is an instruction set that permits
microprocessors to execute software instructions in parallel by using the compiler, rather
than complex on-die circuitry, to control parallel instruction execution. This was intended to
allow simple performance scaling without resorting to higher clock frequencies.
One instruction set computer (OISC)
One instruction set computer (OISC) is an abstract machine that uses only one instruction
obviating the need for a machine language opcode. OISCs have been recommended as guides
in teaching computer architecture and have been used as computational models in structural
computing research.
Zero instruction set computer (ZISC)
Zero instruction set computer (ZISC) is a computer architecture based on pattern matching and
absence of (micro-)instructions in the classical sense. These chips are known for being thought
of as comparable to the neural networks being marketed for the number of "synapses" and
"neurons"
Processor Speed
Computer processor speed (CPU speed) is one of the most important elements to consider when
comparing computers. The CPU is often referred to as “the brain” of your computer, so
ensuring it’s working properly is very important to the longevity and functionality of your
computer. Understanding what makes a good processor speed starts with understanding what
exactly a processor does - and what its components do to improve the functionality of your
computer.
A central processing unit, or CPU, is a piece of hardware that enables your computer to interact
with all of the applications and programs installed. A CPU interprets the program’s instructions
and creates the output that you interface with when you’re using a computer.
A processor is made up of hardware that works together to deliver information, allowing your
computer to complete the tasks that you request when you open an application or make changes
to a file. Whether it processes quickly or painfully slowly can make a big impact on your
computing experience.
Processor cores and clock speeds determine how much information can be received at a time,
and how quickly that information can be processed on your computer. The speed at which your
computer’s cores and clock speed work together is considered its processing speed.
Multiprocessor Systems:
13. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 13
Multiprocessor:
A Multiprocessor is a computer system with two or more central processing units (CPUs)
share full access to a common RAM. The main objective of using a multiprocessor is to boost
the system’s execution speed, with other objectives being fault tolerance and application
matching.
There are two types of multiprocessors, one is called shared memory multiprocessor and
another is distributed memory multiprocessor. In shared memory multiprocessors, all the
CPUs shares the common memory but in a distributed memory multiprocessor, every CPU
has its own private memory.
Applications of Multiprocessor –
1. As a uniprocessor, such as single instruction, single data stream (SISD).
2. As a multiprocessor, such as single instruction, multiple data stream (SIMD),
which is usually used for vector processing.
3. Multiple series of instructions in a single perspective, such as multiple instruction,
single data stream (MISD), which is used for describing hyper-threading or
pipelined processors.
4. Inside a single system for executing multiple, individual series of instructions in
multiple perspectives, such as multiple instruction, multiple data stream (MIMD).
Benefits of using a Multiprocessor –
• Enhanced performance.
• Multiple applications.
• Multi-tasking inside an application.
• High throughput and responsiveness.
• Hardware sharing among CPUs.
Multicomputer:
A multicomputer system is a computer system with multiple processors that are connected
together to solve a problem. Each processor has its own memory and it is accessible by that
particular processor and those processors can communicate with each other via an
interconnection network.
14. Basic Computer System
SWETA KUMARI BARNWAL 14
As the multicomputer is capable of messages passing between the processors, it is possible
to divide the task between the processors to complete the task. Hence, a multicomputer can
be used for distributed computing. It is cost effective and easier to build a multicomputer
than a multiprocessor.
Difference between multiprocessor and Multicomputer:
1. Multiprocessor is a system with two or more central processing units (CPUs) that
is capable of performing multiple tasks where as a multicomputer is a system with
multiple processors that are attached via an interconnection network to perform a
computation task.
2. A multiprocessor system is a single computer that operates with multiple CPUs
where as a multicomputer system is a cluster of computers that operate as a
singular computer.
3. Construction of multicomputer is easier and cost effective than a multiprocessor.
4. In multiprocessor system, program tends to be easier where as in multicomputer
system, program tends to be more difficult.
5. Multiprocessor supports parallel computing, Multicomputer supports distributed
computing.