Instruction cycle of computer
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A processor has an instruction set that defines the basic operations it can perform. An instruction set includes instructions, registers, addressing modes, and memory architecture. Two processors are only compatible if they have the same instruction set. The primary responsibility of a CPU is to execute instructions that make up a program. It does this through an instruction cycle that involves fetching an instruction from memory, decoding it, executing the operation, and storing the results back in memory. Instructions can perform memory transfers, arithmetic, logic, and control operations. A CPU's performance is measured by the number of instructions it can execute per second.
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Solution
The basic operations are arithmeticv, logical, control, I/O. Also to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program.
Fetch : It involves retrieving an instruction from memory. The instruction\'s location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence.
Decode : The step to be followed by CPU will be determined by instruction fecthed. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the instruction decoder , the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.
Execute : Once the above two steps are done, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse
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The CPU acts as the computer's brain and carries out instructions from programs. It has two main components: the control unit, which selects and coordinates instruction execution, and the arithmetic logic unit, which performs calculations. Registers temporarily store data during instruction processing, including special purpose registers like the program counter, accumulator, and input/output registers. The CPU communicates with main memory, usually RAM, and cache memory for faster access to active data. It fetches instructions from memory and decodes and executes them in a multi-step process controlled by the control unit.
The cpu cycle
The document discusses the CPU cycle and its components. The CPU, which executes programs stored in memory, consists of an arithmetic logic unit, control unit, and registers. It performs two phases - instruction and execution. In the instruction phase it fetches and decodes instructions, while the execution phase carries out the instruction and stores results. Various measures gauge processing speed like clock speed and multiprocessing improves it by executing instructions simultaneously. Main memory provides the CPU a working storage area for programs and data in forms like RAM, ROM, and cache.
Register Organization and Instruction cycle
This presentation discusses register organization and the instruction cycle in a central processing unit. It describes the main types of registers in a CPU, including general purpose, address, status, and memory registers. It then explains the four main stages of an instruction cycle: 1) fetching the instruction from memory, 2) decoding the instruction, 3) reading the effective address, and 4) executing the instruction. It provides details on how the memory address register, memory data register, program counter, and instruction register are involved in transferring instructions from memory to the CPU for execution.
Operating system
The document discusses processor technology and architecture. It describes CPU instruction and execution cycles, how primitive instructions are combined to form complex operations, and key CPU design features like instruction format and registers. It explains how registers store intermediate results and status information. The document also outlines future processing trends.
Instruction Cycle in Computer Organization.pptx
The instruction cycle consists of three main stages:
1. The fetch stage where the instruction is fetched from the memory address stored in the program counter and placed in the instruction register. The program counter is then incremented.
2. The decode stage where the instruction is interpreted by the decoder.
3. The execute stage where the control unit passes signals to perform the required operations, and the result is stored in memory or sent to an output device. The program counter may then be updated to fetch the next instruction, beginning the cycle again.
Comp App Lect 2.pptx
The document discusses the basic organization and functioning of a computer system. It describes the five basic operations of a computer as inputting, storing, processing, outputting, and controlling. It then provides details about each operation, the components involved, and how they work together in a coordinated manner to process information. The control unit ensures proper coordination and synchronization of the four main operations to efficiently carry out tasks.
3.3
The document discusses computer architecture and the fetch-execute cycle. It describes the Von Neumann architecture, which uses a single processor that follows a linear sequence of fetching, decoding, and executing instructions. It then explains the fetch-execute cycle in more detail with the steps involved. Finally, it discusses parallel processor systems that can split up the fetching, decoding, and executing stages to improve efficiency.
Processor Management
The document discusses the main components of a CPU, including the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit, and registers. It explains that the ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations, the control unit directs the computer system to carry out instructions, and registers temporarily hold data being operated on. The document also covers instruction sets, processor speed, types of processors including CISC and RISC, and some commonly used processors.
COMMON CPU TERMS.pptx
The document defines common CPU terms like CPU, binary code, ALU, and program counter. It describes the four basic steps a CPU takes to process data: fetch, decode, execute, and store. The CPU fetches instructions from memory using the program counter, decodes assembly code into binary, executes instructions by performing calculations with the ALU or moving data, and stores output data back in memory. The fetch-execute cycle has an instruction time to decode instructions and an execution time to run them and store processed data.
Comp App Lect 2 System Unit.pptx
The CPU is the central processing unit of the computer that acts as its brain. It contains two main components - the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit. The control unit fetches instructions from memory and directs the overall flow of data by orchestrating the operation of all other parts of the CPU. It decodes and executes instructions by determining the sequence of operations. The arithmetic logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations and contains registers for temporary data storage. It executes the instructions by performing calculations on data stored in registers. The CPU follows an instruction cycle of fetching, decoding, executing and storing instructions to process data according to programs.
Instruction cycle
The document describes the phases of the instruction cycle in a CPU. It discusses the following phases: 1) Fetch - the next instruction is fetched from memory and stored in the instruction register using the program counter; 2) Decode - the instruction inside the register is decoded; 3) Execute - the control unit passes signals to function units like the ALU to perform the required actions like arithmetic or logic operations. It also describes common circuits used in a CPU like the program counter, memory address register, and instruction register.
Instruction cycle
The document describes the phases of the instruction cycle in a computer's CPU. It discusses how each instruction is fetched from memory and stored in the instruction register (IR). The control unit then decodes the instruction in the IR. Depending on whether it is a memory or register instruction, the effective address may need to be fetched from memory before execution. During execution, the control signals cause the relevant components like the ALU, registers, and memory to perform the required operations. The full cycle involves fetching the instruction from the memory address in the program counter, decoding and possibly fetching an effective address, then executing the operation and storing results.
Risc and cisc
The document discusses processors and their core functions. It explains that a processor is the central component of a computer that analyzes data, controls data flow, and manages core functions. It then describes the four main steps in a processor's work: fetch, decode, execute, and write back. The document also contrasts RISC (reduced instruction set computer) and CISC (complex instruction set computer) processors, noting key differences in their instruction sets, performance optimization approaches, decoding complexity, execution times, and common examples of each type.
03. top level view of computer function & interconnection
This document discusses the basic components and functions of a computer system with a single processor architecture. It covers the von Neumann architecture, hardwired programs, instruction interpretation, the fetch-execute cycle, interrupts and how they are handled, I/O functions, and different structures for interconnecting computer components.
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Computer Organization (1).pdf
The document discusses the basic components and architecture of a computer system. It describes the four main functional blocks - the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input unit, and output unit. The CPU consists of three main subsystems: the control unit, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and registers. The control unit fetches and decodes instructions from memory and directs the other units. The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. These functional blocks are interconnected via a system bus consisting of address, data, and control lines to allow communication and processing of data within the computer.
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Name and describe the types of operations performed for both Intel and.docx
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03. top level view of computer function & interconnection
03. top level view of computer function & interconnection
More from A. S. M. Shafi
2D Transformation in Computer Graphics
2D transformations are important operations in computer graphics that allow modifying the position, size, and orientation of objects in a 2D plane. There are several types of 2D transformations including translation, rotation, scaling, and more. Transformations are represented using matrix math for efficient application of sequential transformations. Key techniques include homogeneous coordinates to allow different types of transformations to be combined into a single matrix operation.
3D Transformation in Computer Graphics
3D transformations in computer graphics include translation, scaling, and rotation of 3D objects. Translation moves an object by adding translation offsets to the x, y, and z coordinates. Scaling enlarges or shrinks an object by multiplying the coordinates by scaling factors. Rotation rotates an object by applying rotation matrices to change the orientation. Reflection mirrors an object across planes by flipping the sign of coordinates on one axis. These transformations are used to manipulate 3D objects in computer graphics and animation.
Projection
Projection is the process of mapping a 3D object onto a 2D plane. There are two main types of projection: parallel projection, where lines project parallel to each other, and perspective projection, where lines converge to a point. Parallel projection includes oblique projection, where lines hit the plane at a non-90 degree angle, and orthographic projection, where lines hit perpendicular. Orthographic projection can be multiview projection showing top, side and front views, or axonometric projection where the object is rotated for multiple views.
2D Transformation
2D transformations are used in computer graphics to modify and reposition graphics. The key 2D transformation techniques are translation, rotation, scaling, reflection, and shearing. Translation moves an object by adding offsets to its coordinates. Rotation modifies an object's position by applying rotational matrices. Scaling enlarges or shrinks an object by multiplying its coordinates. Reflection mirrors an object across an axis by inverting one coordinate. Shearing skews an object by adding its coordinates. Homogeneous coordinates allow representing transformations using matrix multiplications.
Line drawing algorithm
The document describes two algorithms for drawing lines on a graph:
1. The DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) line drawing algorithm which calculates the slope of the line and uses incremental steps to determine each new pixel coordinate.
2. Bresenham's line drawing algorithm which uses a decision parameter to determine whether the next pixel is directly above/below or diagonal to the current pixel in order to draw lines with integer coordinates.
Fragmentation
Fragmentation refers to the inefficient use of memory space. Internal fragmentation is the wasted space within each allocated memory block due to rounding up to the next allocation size. External fragmentation occurs when various unused memory holes are scattered throughout the memory space. The sample code demonstrates how to calculate internal and external fragmentation by allocating memory to processes and tracking the remaining free space.
File organization
The document discusses three file allocation strategies - sequential, indexed, and linked allocation. It provides descriptions of each strategy and includes sample code to demonstrate how they work. Sequential allocation stores files sequentially in contiguous disk blocks. Indexed allocation stores files in random blocks, maintaining an index to link file blocks. Linked allocation stores files non-contiguously, with each block containing a pointer to the next block in the file.
Bankers algorithm
The Banker's algorithm is a deadlock avoidance algorithm that checks if a system is in a safe state when resources are requested. It models the allocation of resources to processes as a bank lending money to customers. The algorithm uses data structures like Available, Max, Allocation, and Need to represent the available resources, maximum requested resources, allocated resources, and remaining needed resources for each process. It iterates through processes to see if their remaining needs can be met by available resources while maintaining a safe state.
RR and priority scheduling
Priority scheduling assigns priorities to processes and executes the highest priority process first. If processes have equal priorities, they are executed in first come first served order. The example document shows how priority scheduling works by assigning priorities from 1 to 5 to five processes, then calculating their waiting times and turnaround times based on executing the highest priority processes first. Round robin scheduling assigns a fixed time quantum to each process, preempting and resuming processes to ensure all get CPU time and avoid starvation. The example shows how time is divided between processes using a 2ms time quantum.
Fcfs and sjf
CPU scheduling is the process by which the CPU selects which process to execute next from among processes in memory that are ready to execute. The CPU scheduler selects processes from the ready queue to execute. The goal of CPU scheduling is to maximize CPU utilization and throughput while minimizing waiting time and response time. Common CPU scheduling algorithms include first come first serve (FCF) which services processes in the order they arrive, and shortest job first (SJF) which selects the process with the shortest estimated run time to execute next.
Applications of stack
Implementation of checking the validity of an arithmetic expression, conversion from infix to postfix form, evaluation of a postfix expression (C code)
1D Array
An array is a collection of homogeneous data items stored in successive memory locations. It allows storing multiple elements of the same type using a single name. Elements in an array can be accessed using the array name and index number. Common operations on arrays include storing/retrieving elements, searching for a particular element or largest/smallest element, and calculating sum of elements based on certain criteria like even/odd indexing. Arrays can also be modified by inserting or deleting elements.
2D array
A two dimensional array is an array that has two dimensions like rows and columns. The total number of elements in a two dimensional array is calculated by multiplying the number of rows and columns. A two dimensional array can be accessed using two indices like A[i][j] where i represents the row and j represents the column. Common operations on two dimensional arrays include storing and retrieving elements, finding the sum of boundary elements, finding the sum of diagonal elements, adding, subtracting and multiplying two dimensional arrays.
Stack push pop
A stack is a linear data structure that follows the LIFO (last in, first out) principle. Elements are added to the top of the stack and removed from the top. A pointer called the top pointer tracks the top element of the stack during push and pop operations. The push operation adds an element to the top of the stack, while the pop operation removes the top element. A stack can be implemented using either an array or linked list. The document then provides algorithms and sample code for implementing stack operations like push and pop on an array-based stack.
Queue
Queue is a linear data structure that follows the FIFO (first-in, first-out) principle. Elements are added to the rear of the queue and removed from the front. A queue can be implemented using an array or linked list, with front and rear pointers indicating the first and last elements. To add an element, the rear pointer is incremented and the element is inserted at that position. To remove an element, it is accessed via the front pointer before incrementing the front pointer. This allows efficient O(1) insertion and removal of elements from the queue.
Searching
The document discusses two searching algorithms - linear search and binary search. Linear search sequentially compares the target element to each element in the array, while binary search uses a divide and conquer approach to quickly hone in on the target element in a sorted array. Both algorithms are demonstrated with pseudocode and examples.
Sorting
Sorting involves ordering or arranging a collection of elements according to a specific order. There are different sorting algorithms that can sort data in ascending or descending order, including bubble sort, selection sort, and insertion sort. Sorting algorithms can also be categorized as internal sorting, which sorts all data within memory, or external sorting, which sorts data that cannot all fit into memory at once.
Linked list
Linked lists are data structures that store data in scattered locations in memory. Each data item or node contains a data part that holds the actual data and a link part that points to the next node. The nodes are linked together using these links. A linked list requires an external pointer to point to the first node. Operations like traversing, searching, inserting and deleting nodes can be performed on linked lists by manipulating these node links.
Sum of subset problem
Given a set of positive integers and a target sum S, the sum of subset problem is to determine if there exists a subset of the integers whose sum equals S. The algorithm uses a two dimensional table t, where t[i,j] is true if there is a subset that sums to j using the first i elements of the set. It iterates through the elements, setting t[i,j] to true if t[i-1,j] is already true or t[i-1,j-w[i]] is true, where w[i] is the current element. It returns t[n,m] which indicates if a subset summing to S exists.
Quick sort
Quicksort is a sorting algorithm that uses a divide and conquer approach. It works by selecting a pivot element and partitioning the array around the pivot so that elements less than the pivot are to its left and greater elements are to its right. It then recursively applies this process to the subarrays until each contains a single element, at which point the array is fully sorted. The example demonstrates quicksort sorting an array from 0 to 7.
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Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Rainfall intensity duration frequency curve statistical analysis and modeling...
Using data from 41 years in Patna’ India’ the study’s goal is to analyze the trends of how often it rains on a weekly, seasonal, and annual basis (1981−2020). First, utilizing the intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curve and the relationship by statistically analyzing rainfall’ the historical rainfall data set for Patna’ India’ during a 41 year period (1981−2020), was evaluated for its quality. Changes in the hydrologic cycle as a result of increased greenhouse gas emissions are expected to induce variations in the intensity, length, and frequency of precipitation events. One strategy to lessen vulnerability is to quantify probable changes and adapt to them. Techniques such as log-normal, normal, and Gumbel are used (EV-I). Distributions were created with durations of 1, 2, 3, 6, and 24 h and return times of 2, 5, 10, 25, and 100 years. There were also mathematical correlations discovered between rainfall and recurrence interval.
Findings: Based on findings, the Gumbel approach produced the highest intensity values, whereas the other approaches produced values that were close to each other. The data indicates that 461.9 mm of rain fell during the monsoon season’s 301st week. However, it was found that the 29th week had the greatest average rainfall, 92.6 mm. With 952.6 mm on average, the monsoon season saw the highest rainfall. Calculations revealed that the yearly rainfall averaged 1171.1 mm. Using Weibull’s method, the study was subsequently expanded to examine rainfall distribution at different recurrence intervals of 2, 5, 10, and 25 years. Rainfall and recurrence interval mathematical correlations were also developed. Further regression analysis revealed that short wave irrigation, wind direction, wind speed, pressure, relative humidity, and temperature all had a substantial influence on rainfall.
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Unit-III-ELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE DEVICES.ppt
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Embedded machine learning-based road conditions and driving behavior monitoring
Car accident rates have increased in recent years, resulting in losses in human lives, properties, and other financial costs. An embedded machine learning-based system is developed to address this critical issue. The system can monitor road conditions, detect driving patterns, and identify aggressive driving behaviors. The system is based on neural networks trained on a comprehensive dataset of driving events, driving styles, and road conditions. The system effectively detects potential risks and helps mitigate the frequency and impact of accidents. The primary goal is to ensure the safety of drivers and vehicles. Collecting data involved gathering information on three key road events: normal street and normal drive, speed bumps, circular yellow speed bumps, and three aggressive driving actions: sudden start, sudden stop, and sudden entry. The gathered data is processed and analyzed using a machine learning system designed for limited power and memory devices. The developed system resulted in 91.9% accuracy, 93.6% precision, and 92% recall. The achieved inference time on an Arduino Nano 33 BLE Sense with a 32-bit CPU running at 64 MHz is 34 ms and requires 2.6 kB peak RAM and 139.9 kB program flash memory, making it suitable for resource-constrained embedded systems.
Computational Engineering IITH Presentation
This Presentation will give you a brief idea about what Computational Engineering at IIT Hyderabad has to offer.
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Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...
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Introduction, Modeling Concepts and Class Modeling: What is Object orientation? What is OO development? OO Themes; Evidence for usefulness of OO development; OO modeling history. Modeling
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Building the Analysis Models: Requirement Analysis, Analysis Model Approaches, Data modeling Concepts, Object Oriented Analysis, Scenario-Based Modeling, Flow-Oriented Modeling, class Based Modeling, Creating a Behavioral Model.
An improved modulation technique suitable for a three level flying capacitor ...
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efficient control of multilevel inverters, enabling their widespread adoption and
integration into modern power electronic systems. Through the amalgamation of
sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) with a high-frequency square wave
pulse, this controlling technique attains energy equilibrium across the coupling
capacitor. The modulation scheme incorporates a simplified switching pattern
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Instruction cycle of computer
- 1. Instruction Set A processor has a set of instructions that it understands, called as instruction set. An instruction set or an instruction set architecture is a part of the computer architecture. It relates to programming, instructions, registers, addressing modes, memory architecture, etc. An Instruction Set is the set of all the basic operations that a processor can accomplish. Two processors are different if they have different instruction sets. A program run on one computer may not run on another computer having a different processor. Two processors are compatible if the same machine level program can run on both the processors. Instruction Cycle The primary responsibility of a computer processor is to execute a sequential set of instructions that constitute a program. CPU executes each instruction in a series of steps, called instruction cycle. A instruction cycle involves four steps Fetching The processor fetches the instruction from the memory. The fetched instruction is placed in the Instruction Register. Program Counter holds the address of next instruction to be fetched and is incremented after each fetch. Decoding The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded. The instruction is translated into commands so that they correspond to those in the CPU’s instruction set. Executing The decoded instruction or the command is executed. CPU performs the operation implied by the program instruction. Storing CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer’s memory.
- 2. Figure 1. Instruction cycle Figure 2. Steps in instruction cycle
- 3. Instructions are of different categories. Some categories of instructions are— Memory access or transfer of data between registers. Arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction. Logic operations such as AND, OR and NOT. Control the sequence, conditional connections, etc. A CPU performance is measured by the number of instructions it executes in a second, i.e., MIPS (million instructions per second), or BIPS (billion instructions per second).