This document discusses teaching methodology and theories of learning. It defines key terms, outlines learning domains and stages, and factors that influence teaching and learning. It also describes principles of learning for both children and adults. Finally, it summarizes several theories of learning, including behaviorist theories from Skinner and Pavlov, cognitive theories from Bloom and Bruner, and humanistic theories from Rogers and Maslow. The goal is for learners to understand concepts and apply principles of effective teaching.

1. TEACHING
METHODOLOGY
Geoffrey Chukunzira
Supervisor MD CECILIA NYAGAH

2. Main Objective
• By the end of the unit, the learner should be
able to apply the concepts and principles of
teaching and learning

3. Concepts and Theories of learning
• Definition of terms
• Learning domains/ stages of learning
• Factors that influence teaching and learning
• Characteristics of a good teacher
• Principles and skills used in teaching and
learning
• Theories of learning

4. Sub objectives
• By the end of the unit the learner should be
able to
• Explain the basic concepts and theories of
learning
• Participate in curriculum development
• Develop instructional materials for teaching
and learning
• Plan, implement and evaluate
teaching/learning situation

5. A. Definition of terms
• Learning
• A continuous process that results in the
acquisition of new behavior pattern through
experience or practice
• Teaching
• The act of assisting the learner to modify his
behavior through experience, study or intuition.
Imparting knowledge
• Learner
• Person acquiring knowledge or skills

6. • Teacher
• The person who transmits knowledge through
personal contact
• Teaching methodology
• Technique used by the teacher to promote
learning
• Climate setting
• The process of creating an atmosphere of free
interaction between the participants themselves
and their facilitators

7. Learning
• A continuous process that alters behavior through
training
• A learning situation is potentiated through four
ingredients
a)Motivation
b) Information
c) Practice
d) Feedback
The change in behavior addresses a felt need, which
occurs through experience

8. Principles of learning
• What is a principle?
• A fact, rule, law about something that occur as
a result of repeated experience leading to the
deeper understanding of ideas on the
processes of teaching and learning

9. Principles of learning
• Students learn what is relevant and useful
• When the material is presented in a sequential
and logical manner
• Learn when actively involved
• When they receive feedback on their
performance
• Conducive environment
• Recognizes peoples right to make mistakes
• Encourages openness of mind and trust in self

10. • Involves practice and repetition
• Speed of presenting and speed at which
learners learn match
• Message is clear
• Learners are motivated
• People learn and remember things that are
exciting, dramatic or pleasant more easily
than those boring unpleasant things

11. Principles of adult learning
(Andragogy)
• Andragogy is the art of helping adults learn while
pedagogy is the art of helping children learn.
• The principles of adult learning include
 It is self directed
 The teacher facilitates learning rather than directing it
 Adult learners learn best by being active rather than
passive
 Learning is optimum when the content are applicable
immediately to existing problems or their own
situations

12. Adult learners bring with them a wealth of
experience
Adult learners can help each other because of
their experience, encourage them to do so
The learners should be encouraged to
continuously evaluate their learning

13. Characteristics of learning
• It produces a behavior change in the learner
• It leads to a relatively permanent change
• It results from practice and repetition of
experience
• It is directly observant ie, abstract

14. Factors influencing learning (conditions)
1. Maturation/ age
Mature enough to adapt to the expected behavior
2. Ability potential (intelligence)
One's ability to acquire knowledge and carry out a
particular responsibility
3. Previous learning experience
Extra couching needed where there is no previous
experience

15. • 4. Motivation
• Internal and external conditions of learning
• 5. Level of aspiration
• 6. Physical & emotional state: sickness, fatigue,
physical disability
• 7. Psychological state: fear, anxiety, excitement
• 8. Importance of material to the learner
• 9. Participation of the learner: should be actively
involved eg asking and answering questions

16. • 10. Socio economic factors
• 11. Feedback
• Should be given in time to ensure learning
takes place
• 12. Learners environment: conducive
• 13. Practice and guidance: more improves
performance & learning
• 14. Methods of teaching

17. • 15. Re enforcement
• A re enforcer is anything that strengthens
behavior and increases the probability of its
reoccurrence
• Eg attention, recognition, praise, awards,
confirmation of the right answer
• 2 types positive and negative re enforcement
Positive encourage positive behavior
Negative discourage unacceptable behavior

18. • Components of re enforcement
Verbal : praise, encouragement, feedback
Gestures: nodding, clapping, thumbing
Activity: related to the lesson
Proximity: closeness to the student, physical content,
handshake
Token/ rewards
NB: Effective re enforcement should be immediate,
understandable and meaningful to the student

19. Learning Domains (Stages of learning)
1) Cognitive learning
2) Psychomotor learning
3) Affective learning

20. a) Cognitive Learning
• Relates to recall of knowledge & development
of intellectual abilities and skills
• Concerned with knowledge of facts, concepts
of information, thinking and reasoning
• Used in academic studies
• Involves 6 levels of knowledge acquisition

21. Levels of knowledge acquisition
1. Simple knowledge
2. Identification
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

22. b) Psychomotor Learning
• It involves learning of skills or practical ability.
• The skills involve movement thus motor/
psychomotor
• Levels in this domain include:
Imitation
Manipulation
Precision
Articulation
Naturalization

23. Levels of psychomotor learning
• Imitation: the learner is exposed to an observable
action at the level of his/her muscular system guided
by an impulse to imitate it.
• Involves gross body movements
• Manipulation: learner is prepared for adjustment to a
particular action followed by finely coordinated
movement
• The learner performs and acts according to
instruction

24. • Precision: a high level performance. There is
proficiency in performance to reproduce a given act
under instruction and guidance
• Articulation: involves the coordination of a series of
acts by establishing an appropriate sequence among
different acts, ability to communicate, verbal & non
verbal
• Naturalization: skills of performance attains its highest
level of proficiency in a single act or a series of
articulated acts.
• The act is performed with minimal expenditure of
energy

25. c) Affective learning
• Concerned with interest, attitudes & values of
people & development of appreciation
&adequate adjustment.
• In this domain, learners learn to share, argue
& cooperate with one another
• Certain attitudes are formed or changed
through training

26. Levels in affective domain
• Receiving: willingness to pay attention to the
information
• Responding: willingness to accept an event
through some form of participation. Learner
shows interest to what is happening
• Valuing: willingness to accept an event
through expression of positive attitude
• Organization: the learner meets the situation
of which more than one value is relevant.

27. • Characterization: the learner consistently acts
in accordance with the value s/he accepts &
incorporates this behavior as part of their
personality

28. How learning takes place
• Through reasoning, getting facts, organizing &
choosing the best alternative
• Can take place in the absence of the teacher
• In a learning situation the teacher is the facilitator
• Learning can be formal or informal
• Learning takes time
• Attitudes and values are developed through
observation

29. THEORIES OF LEARNING
1. Cognitive theories
2. Behaviorist theories
3. Humanistic/ social psychologist

30. 1. Behaviorist theories
• B.F.Skinner: operant conditioning
• suggests that learning will occur if behavior is
followed by pleasant consequences.
• Look Skinner box experiment
• He introduced the law of effect thus
reinforcement
• The teacher determines the direction of
learning depending on the kind of reward

31. • The theory elicits 3 kinds of responses:
• Neutral operants:
• Reinforcers
• Punishers

32. Ivan Pavlov Theory
• Classical conditioning
• Reinforcement and punishment
• Automatic responses
• Association between the stimuli to produce
certain responses
• Learning to associate unconditioned stimuli UCS
that results in a certain unconditioned response
UCR, with a conditioned stimuli CS, such that the
new stimuli brings about same effect

33. 2. Cognitive Theories
• B S Bloom theory
• 3 domains of learning
• Affective, cognitive, psychomotor
• Outlines levels of learning in each domain
from basic to complex

34. J.BRUNNER
• He recommended that learns should be
encouraged to work out things for themselves.
• Learner should relate new material to pre
existing knowledge and deduce a meaning
• Aim of education should be to create an
autonomous learner
• Learning to learn
• Teacher facilitates thinking and imparts
problem solving skills

35. Discovery learning
• Learners have goals and are provided with
resources that allows them to work out
solutions too their problems through own
effort and use of appropriate resources

36. HUMANISTIC/SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGIST
• CARL ROGERS> Learner centered approach to learning
• His main propositions included:
All humans have a natural potential and desire to learn
Learning occurs when the learner perceives relevance
related to their own purpose
Significant learning is through doing
Learner chooses their direction discovers resources and
formulates problems

37. Most learning is self initiated and involves the
whole person
Self evaluation is key in effective mature learning
Learners should retain a continuing openness to
change

38. • The theory contributed to adult learning principles
• It emphasizes use of small group discussion
• The teacher is guide/facilitator
• Rogers philosophy

39. ABRAHAM MASLOW THEORY
• He encouraged the need to focus on the
development of the student as a person with a role
in the society
• Self knowledge: one develops a set of values to
guide them through life
• Learning for self enhancement rather than for
utility
• Learning out of interest than to gain more
qualifications
• Individual decides what to learn and how to learn it

41. CONSTRUCTIVISM
• Origin of jean piaget theory of cognitive development
• Recognises the learners understanding and knowledge
• Learning is considered to be an active process in which
alearner constructs new ideas or concepts based on
their current /pat experience and knowledge.
• The learner selects and trasnforms informations and
constructs hypothesis and makes decision based on
cognitive structure.

42. Principles of constructivism theory
• Instructor should encourage students to discover ideas by themselves.
• Encourage socratic learning –instructor-learner engagement.
• Curiculum should be organized in a spiral manner – so that students build
upon on what they already learnt.
• The instructor task is to translate information into the format that is
appropriate to the learners current state of learning.

43. constructivism application in teaching
and learning.
• Learning theory of constructivism incorporates a learning
process wherein the student gains their own conclusions
through the creative aid of the teacher as a facilitator.
The best way to plan teacher worksheets, lesson plans,
and study skills for the students, is to create a curriculum
which allows each student to solve problems while the
teacher monitors and flexibly guides the students to the
correct answer, while encouraging critical thinking.

44. • Instead of having the students relying on
someone else's information and accepting it as
truth, the students should be exposed to data,
primary sources, and the ability to interact with
other students so that they can learn from the
incorporation of their experiences. The classroom
experience should be an invitation for a myriad of
different backgrounds and the learning
experience which allows the different
backgrounds to come together and observe and
analyze information and ideas.

45. • Hands-on activities are the best for the classroom
applications of constructivism, critical thinking and
learning. Having observations take place with a daily
journal helps the students to better understand how
their own experiences contribute to the formation of
their theories and observational notes, and then
comparing them to another students' reiterates that
different backgrounds and cultures create different
outlooks, while neither is wrong, both should be
respected.

46. • These exercises and classroom applications of
constructivism will allow children to, at an early age or
a late age, develop the skills and confidence to analyze
the world around them, create solutions or support for
developing issues, and then justify their words and
actions, while encouraging those around them to do
the same and respecting the differences in opinions for
the contributions that they can make to the whole of
the situation. Classroom applications of constructivism
support the philosophy of learning which build a
students' and teachers' understanding.

47. • Some strategies for classroom applications of
constructivism for the teacher include having students
working together and aiding to answer one another's
questions. Another strategy includes designating one
student as the "expert" on a subject and having them
teach the class. Finally, allowing students to work in
groups or pairs and research controversial topics which
they must then present to the class.

48. Connectivism theory
• Connectivism is a theoretical framework for
understanding learning in a digital age. It emphasizes
how internet technologies such as web browsers,
search engines, wikis, online discussion forums, and
social networks contributed to new avenues of
learning. Technologies have enabled people to learn
and share information across the World Wide Web and
among themselves in ways that were not possible
before the digital age.

49. CONT
• Learning does not simply happen within an individual,
but within and across the networks. What sets
connectivism apart from theories such as
constructivism is the view that "learning (defined as
actionable knowledge)
• Connectivism sees knowledge can reside outside of
ourselves (within an organization as a database), is
focused on connecting specialized information sets, and
the connections that enable us to learn more important
than our current state of and learning as a process of
pattern recognition.

50. PRINCIPLES OF
TEACHING
• Teaching is assisting the learner to modify his
behavior through training or experience
• Purpose of teaching: help learner to
a) Acquire, retain and utilize the knowledge
b) Acquire skills
c) Establish habits and develop attitudes
d) Understand, analyze, synthesize and evaluate the
knowledge

51. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
TEACHER
1. Warmth
2. Cognitive organization
3. Orderliness
4. Indirectness
5. Ability to solve instructional problems

52. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
TEACHER
• Warmth> emotional support, praise and
encourage the learner
• Cognitive organization> aims learner to acquire
understanding/ meaning not memorize .
• presents ideas in a logical sequential manner
• Assesses learners capability to learn, factors in
slow learners

53. • Orderliness> should be systematic and methodical
• Indirectness> learning are indirectly involved
through active participation. Self discovery is key in
the learning process
• Ability to solve instructional problems>
• The ability to provide solutions to problems
encountered in the teaching/learning situation
• Includes technical problems eg poor performance,
managerial problems

54. General principles of
teaching
• The teacher helps students learn through:
Active learning: involve them and give feedback
Clarity: your teaching should be clear, speak
loudly, write neatly and use visual aids
Ensure mastery: check that all students know and
can do it
Individualize: allow for individual differences and
abilities, vary your teaching methods
Motivation: make teaching interesting, relevant
and rewarding

55. The tasks of a teacher
• 6, which include:
1. Planning
2. Communication
3. Providing resources
4. Counselling
5. Assessment
6. Continuing self education

56. Active learning
• You can do this in many ways
• Give students activities to perform
• Ask questions
• Set problems or projects
• Give feedback or tell them how they could
have done better