L3 cognitive comparisons
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The document summarizes key cognitive theories of gender development: 1) Gender Schema Theory proposes that children develop mental frameworks for processing gender-related information from a young age. 2) Gender Constancy Theory suggests that children's perceptions of their own gender as stable develops between ages 3-4. 3) Later research found evidence supporting elements of both, finding that gender-based organization in memory increases with age as per Schema Theory, while same-sex preferences increase with developing Constancy. 4) The cognitive approach has been critiqued for ignoring biological influences and for potentially lacking real-world application today given changing social roles.
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Ao2 kohlberg
Gender constancy theory proposes that children progress through three stages of gender development: gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy. According to this theory, children understand by age 2-3.5 that they are either a boy or girl, firmly believe this by ages 3.5-5, and understand that their gender remains constant despite changes in appearance by ages 5-7. The development of gender constancy is thought to depend on children's cognitive capabilities and stages of development as described by theorists like Piaget and Kohlberg.
Gender kohlberg
The document provides an introduction to psychological explanations of gender, distinguishing between sex and gender. It then outlines Kohlberg's gender constancy theory, a stage theory of gender development where children progress from recognizing gender labels, to understanding gender is stable, to realizing gender remains constant despite changes in appearance. The third stage of gender constancy, achieved between ages 5-7, aligns with Piaget's stage of concrete operational thought, where children develop the ability to conserve stable concepts.
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This document outlines exam questions related to gender development from 2010 to 2015. It focuses on assessing various theories and approaches to explaining gender, including:
- The biosocial approach and influences of social factors (2010)
- Kohlberg's theory of gender development (2011, 2013)
- Explanations for psychological androgyny (2011)
- Cross-cultural studies of gender roles (2011)
- Research into social influences on gender (2012, 2015)
- Gender schema theory (2012, 2014)
- The biosocial approach and social influences on gender (2013, 2015)
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The document discusses the biological approach to gender development. It describes how biological factors like genes, hormones and brain differences influence whether a fetus develops as male or female. During development, testosterone exposure affects the formation of sex organs and later impacts behaviors by changing the brain. Studies on animals, intersex individuals and hormone correlations in humans provide some evidence linking biology to gendered behaviors, though methods have limitations. The complexity of influences on gender is exemplified by cases like Caster Semenya.
Gender -gender hormones and genes
The document discusses biological influences on gender development from conception through adulthood. It explains that the presence or absence of the SRY gene during early fetal development determines whether sex organs develop along male or female lines. During critical prenatal and early childhood periods, males are exposed to higher levels of testosterone than females, which influences brain development and later gendered behaviors. While hormones and genes influence gender development, the complexity of factors involved is demonstrated by cases like Caster Semenya that challenge simple biological definitions of gender.
Biological Theories of Gender
The biological approach states that gender development is determined by genes and hormones. In the first 6-8 weeks of development, a fetus will develop either male or female sex organs depending on the presence or absence of the SRY gene. For males, the SRY gene causes development of testes which produce testosterone, triggering male external organ development. Females develop in the absence of male hormones. Later hormone exposure during development and puberty further influence secondary sex characteristics and behaviors through average hormonal differences between males and females. However, social learning and social norms also influence behaviors, and determinism is limited as seen in conditions like androgen insensitivity syndrome.
Chapter 4 ap psych- Developmental Psych
The document discusses key concepts in developmental psychology including nature vs nurture, continuity vs stages of development, stability vs change over the lifespan. It covers prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Key theorists discussed include Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson. Development is influenced by both biological/genetic factors and environmental experiences.
A2 Psych Gender dysphoria
Gender dysphoria refers to a mismatch between one's biological sex and gender identity. It can be explained through both biological and psychological perspectives. Biologically, prenatal hormone levels may influence brain development in a way that is inconsistent with one's sex. Studies have found some brain structures in transgender individuals resemble their identified gender rather than biological sex. However, it is difficult to separate the influences of nature and nurture on gender development. Psychologically, psychoanalytic theories propose gender dysphoria results from problems in gender identity formation. Attachment issues and conditioning may also play a role, though evidence is mixed. Most researchers agree the condition likely stems from complex interactions between biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors.
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Gender constancy theory proposes that children progress through three stages of gender development: gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy. According to this theory, children understand by age 2-3.5 that they are either a boy or girl, firmly believe this by ages 3.5-5, and understand that their gender remains constant despite changes in appearance by ages 5-7. The development of gender constancy is thought to depend on children's cognitive capabilities and stages of development as described by theorists like Piaget and Kohlberg.
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The document provides an introduction to psychological explanations of gender, distinguishing between sex and gender. It then outlines Kohlberg's gender constancy theory, a stage theory of gender development where children progress from recognizing gender labels, to understanding gender is stable, to realizing gender remains constant despite changes in appearance. The third stage of gender constancy, achieved between ages 5-7, aligns with Piaget's stage of concrete operational thought, where children develop the ability to conserve stable concepts.
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This document outlines exam questions related to gender development from 2010 to 2015. It focuses on assessing various theories and approaches to explaining gender, including:
- The biosocial approach and influences of social factors (2010)
- Kohlberg's theory of gender development (2011, 2013)
- Explanations for psychological androgyny (2011)
- Cross-cultural studies of gender roles (2011)
- Research into social influences on gender (2012, 2015)
- Gender schema theory (2012, 2014)
- The biosocial approach and social influences on gender (2013, 2015)
Gender - hormones and genes
The document discusses the biological approach to gender development. It describes how biological factors like genes, hormones and brain differences influence whether a fetus develops as male or female. During development, testosterone exposure affects the formation of sex organs and later impacts behaviors by changing the brain. Studies on animals, intersex individuals and hormone correlations in humans provide some evidence linking biology to gendered behaviors, though methods have limitations. The complexity of influences on gender is exemplified by cases like Caster Semenya.
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The document discusses biological influences on gender development from conception through adulthood. It explains that the presence or absence of the SRY gene during early fetal development determines whether sex organs develop along male or female lines. During critical prenatal and early childhood periods, males are exposed to higher levels of testosterone than females, which influences brain development and later gendered behaviors. While hormones and genes influence gender development, the complexity of factors involved is demonstrated by cases like Caster Semenya that challenge simple biological definitions of gender.
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The biological approach states that gender development is determined by genes and hormones. In the first 6-8 weeks of development, a fetus will develop either male or female sex organs depending on the presence or absence of the SRY gene. For males, the SRY gene causes development of testes which produce testosterone, triggering male external organ development. Females develop in the absence of male hormones. Later hormone exposure during development and puberty further influence secondary sex characteristics and behaviors through average hormonal differences between males and females. However, social learning and social norms also influence behaviors, and determinism is limited as seen in conditions like androgen insensitivity syndrome.
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The document discusses key concepts in developmental psychology including nature vs nurture, continuity vs stages of development, stability vs change over the lifespan. It covers prenatal development, infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Key theorists discussed include Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson. Development is influenced by both biological/genetic factors and environmental experiences.
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Gender dysphoria refers to a mismatch between one's biological sex and gender identity. It can be explained through both biological and psychological perspectives. Biologically, prenatal hormone levels may influence brain development in a way that is inconsistent with one's sex. Studies have found some brain structures in transgender individuals resemble their identified gender rather than biological sex. However, it is difficult to separate the influences of nature and nurture on gender development. Psychologically, psychoanalytic theories propose gender dysphoria results from problems in gender identity formation. Attachment issues and conditioning may also play a role, though evidence is mixed. Most researchers agree the condition likely stems from complex interactions between biological, psychological, social, and environmental factors.
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Developmental psychology covers physical, social, cognitive, and moral development over the lifespan. Nature and nurture both influence who we become. Research methods include cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Physical development encompasses changes from prenatal development and infancy through adulthood and death. Social development involves attachment, parenting styles, and relationships. Cognitive development progresses through Piaget's stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operational thought.
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The document discusses the influences of nature (genes) and nurture (environment) on human behavior. It explores topics like evolutionary psychology, behavior genetics, twin studies, and the role of parents, peers, culture and gender in development. While genes provide a biological blueprint, the environment also shapes the mind and behavior through prenatal influences, parenting, culture, and gender socialization from a young age. Both nature and nurture likely interact in complex ways to influence who we become.
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This document discusses factors that influence gender identity development in children, including innate gender stability and consistency, as well as external social and environmental influences from parents, society/culture, and media. It also addresses how children learn gender stereotyped behaviors and same sex activities from playmates as they develop their own gender identity.
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1) Attachment theory was originally developed based on Western ideals that emphasize independence, but may not apply universally across cultures.
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This document discusses sex and gender differences between males and females across multiple domains:
1. It outlines biological factors that determine sex such as chromosomes, genes, and hormonal influences that can result in intersex conditions.
2. Early developmental differences are seen between infant boys and girls in experiments measuring persistence and emotional responses.
3. Cognitive differences are discussed such as superior spatial skills in boys compared to earlier language development in girls from a young age.
4. Biological vulnerabilities make males more prone to developmental disorders and diseases potentially due to biological and social factors influencing stress responses between the sexes.
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1. The document summarizes physical, cognitive, and social development from infancy through childhood. It discusses stages of growth, motor skills development, tooth growth, language acquisition, and cognitive stages described by Piaget.
2. Several studies on Filipino children are summarized that examine patterns of physical growth, cognitive development milestones like conservation, and the impact of Sesame Street on learning.
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Here are some responses from different levels of moral reasoning:
Pre-conventional:
- No, stealing is against the rules and Heinz could get in trouble.
Conventional:
- It's a difficult situation, but stealing is illegal so Heinz should not have done it.
Post-conventional:
- Stealing violates the druggist's rights, but letting a life be lost when the means to save it exist also seems wrong. There are good arguments on both sides of this complex situation with moral dilemmas either way.
Human Development Overview
This document provides an overview of key concepts in human development from prenatal stages through adulthood. It discusses four main questions of developmental science: plasticity, individual differences, continuity, and sources of development. The stages of development are divided into ages and domains. The sources of development are explored through nature versus nurture and ecological models. Critical periods and the effects of injury on plasticity are examined. Individual differences are considered in terms of the nature of differences between people and consistency of characteristics across the lifespan. The primary objectives are to compare developmental theories using the four questions, observe child development, and examine adult development through case studies.
Biosocial approach
The biosocial approach argues that both biological and social factors interact to influence gender development, as biological sex influences the social roles individuals are expected to fulfill but these roles also shape psychological gender differences. Social role theory proposes that physical sex differences lead to specialized social roles for men and women, and people develop characteristics suited to their typical social roles. Studies examining the influence of gender labels on perceptions of children's behavior provide support for the biosocial view that socialization strongly shapes gender development from an early age.
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This document provides an introduction to concepts related to gender identity, gender expression, and biological sex. It defines these terms and discusses their differences. It also addresses the prevalence of intersex individuals, myths and misconceptions, and theoretical considerations for counselors. Gender identity refers to one's internal gender, gender expression is one's outward presentation, and biological sex refers to physical characteristics. These do not always align. The document aims to educate on this topic which is important for multicultural counseling.
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Sex, gender identity, and gender expression can exist on spectrums that are different than traditional norms. Gender identity refers to one's internal sense of self as male, female, both, or neither, which may or may not correspond to their sex assigned at birth. There are many terms used to describe various gender identities including transgender, transsexual, genderqueer, and more which challenge societal expectations of gender roles and expressions.
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This document discusses gender identity and its development. It defines sex as biological and refers to physical differences, while gender is psychological and relates to one's sense of masculinity or femininity. It explores several theories on how gender roles and identities form, including:
- Biological factors like evolutionary mating strategies
- Kohlberg's cognitive theory of gender constancy in childhood
- Social cognitive theory of learning gender roles through observation and reinforcement
- Gender schema theory of organizing information according to masculine/feminine concepts
- Psychoanalytic theories like Freud's identification theory of gender development through the Oedipus complex.
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The document discusses cognitive theories of gender development, including gender schema theory. It explains that cognitive approaches see gender development as influenced by a child's thinking patterns and perceptions. Gender schema theory specifically proposes that children form mental models (schemas) of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age, around 2-3 years old, and use these schemas to guide their own behavior and evaluate others. The document provides an overview of Kohlberg's stages of gender identity and constancy development, and discusses how gender schema theory builds on but differs from Kohlberg's theory in proposing an earlier emergence of gender-related schemas.
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1. It defines stereotypes as generalizations made about groups that get applied to individuals. Several theories on the origins of stereotypes are presented, including social categorization and the "grain of truth" hypothesis.
2. Research is summarized that shows how holding stereotypes can impact perceptions and expectations of others. Studies demonstrate stereotypes influence judgments of intelligence and ability.
3. Additional research shows how knowing stereotypes exist about one's own group can negatively impact performance through "stereotype threat."
4. The document ends by reviewing studies on ways stereotypes may be overcome, such as exposing children to counter-stereotypical media portrayals and increasing awareness of implicit biases
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This document discusses gender and its impact on children's development. It begins by defining gender as the social and cultural construction or interpretation of differences between the sexes, as opposed to sex which refers to biological distinctions. The document notes that gender identity develops as children progress through cognitive stages of understanding their own gender. It explores the nature versus nurture debate around gender and discusses various psychological theories for how children learn gender roles and norms. The document advocates for gender equality and considers ways to achieve more balanced gender representation in classroom environments and teaching practices.
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Chapter 3 human development
This document provides an overview of chapter 7 in a developmental psychology textbook. It outlines 20 learning objectives that will be covered in the chapter, including how development is studied through longitudinal, cross-sectional and cross-sequential research designs. Other topics that will be discussed are the relationship between heredity and environment, genetic inheritance, prenatal development of twins, physical changes from infancy to childhood, cognitive development theories from Piaget and Vygotsky, and adolescent identity formation.
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Developmental psychology covers physical, social, cognitive, and moral development over the lifespan. Nature and nurture both influence who we become. Research methods include cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Physical development encompasses changes from prenatal development and infancy through adulthood and death. Social development involves attachment, parenting styles, and relationships. Cognitive development progresses through Piaget's stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operational thought.
4.human development presentation
Human development is the study of growth and change throughout life. It includes physical, perceptual, cognitive, personality and social development. There are 8 stages from prenatal to late adulthood. Prenatal development begins with fertilization and progresses through the germinal, embryonic and fetal stages. During these stages, major organs and body systems develop and the risks of chromosomal abnormalities are highest. Genetics and environmental factors both influence prenatal development.
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The document discusses the influences of nature (genes) and nurture (environment) on human behavior. It explores topics like evolutionary psychology, behavior genetics, twin studies, and the role of parents, peers, culture and gender in development. While genes provide a biological blueprint, the environment also shapes the mind and behavior through prenatal influences, parenting, culture, and gender socialization from a young age. Both nature and nurture likely interact in complex ways to influence who we become.
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Cultural variations in attachment
The document discusses cultural variations in attachment theory and research. It compares individualist Western cultures like the US to more collectivist Eastern cultures like Japan. Some key points made include:
1) Attachment theory was originally developed based on Western ideals that emphasize independence, but may not apply universally across cultures.
2) Research has found that children in collectivist cultures show more signs of dependency and interdependence, which are viewed negatively in the West.
3) A meta-analysis of studies across many countries found that rates of insecure attachment varied significantly depending on cultural norms.
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This document discusses sex and gender differences between males and females across multiple domains:
1. It outlines biological factors that determine sex such as chromosomes, genes, and hormonal influences that can result in intersex conditions.
2. Early developmental differences are seen between infant boys and girls in experiments measuring persistence and emotional responses.
3. Cognitive differences are discussed such as superior spatial skills in boys compared to earlier language development in girls from a young age.
4. Biological vulnerabilities make males more prone to developmental disorders and diseases potentially due to biological and social factors influencing stress responses between the sexes.
Growth and development
1. The document summarizes physical, cognitive, and social development from infancy through childhood. It discusses stages of growth, motor skills development, tooth growth, language acquisition, and cognitive stages described by Piaget.
2. Several studies on Filipino children are summarized that examine patterns of physical growth, cognitive development milestones like conservation, and the impact of Sesame Street on learning.
3. Social development is also covered, noting the importance of relationships with adults in infancy and play with peers in preschool, as well as the development of group identity and friendships in primary school.
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The document summarizes research on caregiver-infant attachment. It describes Schaffer and Emerson's 1964 study which identified 4 stages of attachment development. They found that most infants form their first attachment to their biological mother by 7 months. Additional research has explored attachments to secondary caregivers, particularly fathers. While some research suggests fathers play a distinct role through play and stimulation, other studies have been unable to clearly define the father's role in attachment. The role of fathers in infant development remains an area of ongoing research and debate.
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Here are some responses from different levels of moral reasoning:
Pre-conventional:
- No, stealing is against the rules and Heinz could get in trouble.
Conventional:
- It's a difficult situation, but stealing is illegal so Heinz should not have done it.
Post-conventional:
- Stealing violates the druggist's rights, but letting a life be lost when the means to save it exist also seems wrong. There are good arguments on both sides of this complex situation with moral dilemmas either way.
Human Development Overview
This document provides an overview of key concepts in human development from prenatal stages through adulthood. It discusses four main questions of developmental science: plasticity, individual differences, continuity, and sources of development. The stages of development are divided into ages and domains. The sources of development are explored through nature versus nurture and ecological models. Critical periods and the effects of injury on plasticity are examined. Individual differences are considered in terms of the nature of differences between people and consistency of characteristics across the lifespan. The primary objectives are to compare developmental theories using the four questions, observe child development, and examine adult development through case studies.
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Gender dysphoria
This document discusses gender dysphoria and provides instruction for classroom activities on the topic. It begins with defining gender dysphoria as experiencing a mismatch between biological sex and gender identity. Students are asked to complete tasks studying the signs and symptoms of gender dysphoria, biological and psychological explanations, and the biosocial approach. They read a story about Hannah and analyze it from biological and psychological perspectives. Finally, the document previews that after the Easter break students will have an assessment covering all topics studied so far on gender and psychology, and provides revision instructions.
Gender identity project (1)
This document provides an introduction to concepts related to gender identity, gender expression, and biological sex. It defines these terms and discusses their differences. It also addresses the prevalence of intersex individuals, myths and misconceptions, and theoretical considerations for counselors. Gender identity refers to one's internal gender, gender expression is one's outward presentation, and biological sex refers to physical characteristics. These do not always align. The document aims to educate on this topic which is important for multicultural counseling.
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Gender identity and sexual orientation
Sex, gender identity, and gender expression can exist on spectrums that are different than traditional norms. Gender identity refers to one's internal sense of self as male, female, both, or neither, which may or may not correspond to their sex assigned at birth. There are many terms used to describe various gender identities including transgender, transsexual, genderqueer, and more which challenge societal expectations of gender roles and expressions.
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Social influences from parents, peers, and media can encourage gender-stereotypical behaviors in children from a young age. Parents often model and reinforce behaviors that are considered appropriate for the child's gender. Peers also punish behaviors that are not typical of one's gender. Media portrays gender roles and stereotypes through television, magazines, and films that children are exposed to. However, cross-cultural research suggests that what is considered gender-appropriate varies across cultures and has become more flexible in Western cultures over time.
Q201 - Gender Identity
This document discusses gender identity and its development. It defines sex as biological and refers to physical differences, while gender is psychological and relates to one's sense of masculinity or femininity. It explores several theories on how gender roles and identities form, including:
- Biological factors like evolutionary mating strategies
- Kohlberg's cognitive theory of gender constancy in childhood
- Social cognitive theory of learning gender roles through observation and reinforcement
- Gender schema theory of organizing information according to masculine/feminine concepts
- Psychoanalytic theories like Freud's identification theory of gender development through the Oedipus complex.
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The document discusses cognitive theories of gender development, including gender schema theory. It explains that cognitive approaches see gender development as influenced by a child's thinking patterns and perceptions. Gender schema theory specifically proposes that children form mental models (schemas) of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age, around 2-3 years old, and use these schemas to guide their own behavior and evaluate others. The document provides an overview of Kohlberg's stages of gender identity and constancy development, and discusses how gender schema theory builds on but differs from Kohlberg's theory in proposing an earlier emergence of gender-related schemas.
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2. Research is summarized that shows how holding stereotypes can impact perceptions and expectations of others. Studies demonstrate stereotypes influence judgments of intelligence and ability.
3. Additional research shows how knowing stereotypes exist about one's own group can negatively impact performance through "stereotype threat."
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2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren.
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docx
1: You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your gene. Identify all candidate sgRNAs which can knockout all isoforms of your gene. Paste the excel spreadsheet with a list below.
2: Annotate in benchling where these candidate sgRNAs are
3: For two of the sgRNAs you have found, design PCR primers which will amplify the target site and produces a product less < 1000 bp
4: Indicate where in the target site the double strand break will happen.`
5: What is the impact on the protein coding sequence if the following NHEJ mutations occur:
(A) Single base deletion
(B) Two base deletion
(C) Three base deletion
Journal of Pcnonaluy and Social Psychology
1»M. Vd 47, No 6. 1292-1302
Copynghi I9S4 by the
American Psychological Association. Inc
Influence of Gender Constancy and Social Power
on Sex-Linked Modeling
Kay Bussey
Macquarie University
New South Wales, Australia
Albert Bandura
Stanford University
Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social
learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-develop-
mental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the
emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-
role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with
modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with
social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated
same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy
was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather
than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates
modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment
we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the
force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female
models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex
modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling
is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls
and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power
for boys.
Most theories of sex role development as-
sign a major role to modeling as a basic
mechanism of sex role learning (Bandura,
1969; Kagan, 1964; Mischel, 1970; Sears,
Rau & Alpert, 1965). Maccoby and Jacklin
(1974) have questioned whether social prac-
tices or modeling processes are influential in
the development of sex-linked roles. They
point to findings that in laboratory situations
children do not consistently pattern their
This research was supported by Research Grant No.
M-S162-21 from the National Institute of Mental Health,
U.S. Public Health Services, and by the Lewis S. Haas
Child Development Research Fund, Stanford University.
We thank Martin Curland, Brad Carpenter, Bren ...
Gender schema
The document discusses a 1975 study by Slaby and Frey that found children with higher levels of gender constancy showed more attention to same-sex role models, supporting Kohlberg's theory of gender constancy. It also reviews a 1984 study by Weinraub finding that once children identify their own gender, they behave in ways stereotypical of that gender. Gender schema theory holds that children form mental frameworks of gender-appropriate behaviors from a young age based on their social environment.
Gender Development Social Process.pptx
gender development and social process in gender dominated societies. Gender development in terms of social process within social or gender differences. Social process regarding genders.
Similar to L3 cognitive comparisons (16)
OCR Psychology 15 core studies G542 social science
OCR Psychology 15 core studies G542 social science
Intoduction in psychology Chapter 1- Dev Psych.pdf
Intoduction in psychology Chapter 1- Dev Psych.pdf
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docx
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docx
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docx
1 You have been tasked to perform a CRISPR based knockout of your.docx
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Influence of childhood
The document discusses how childhood attachment influences adult relationships. John Bowlby proposed that infants form internal working models through their primary attachment with caregivers, which act as templates for future relationships. Studies have found associations between childhood attachment types and relationship styles in adulthood, supporting the continuity hypothesis. However, the theory may be reductionist by not considering other influential factors like life events, personality, and the possibility of learning secure attachments.
Parental investment
Parental investment theory proposes that the differences in reproductive strategies between males and females stem from their differing levels of minimal parental investment. For females, pregnancy and lactation require extensive energetic resources, limiting the number of offspring that can be produced. In contrast, males can father many offspring with minimal investment. As a result, females evolve to be more selective in choosing mates who can provide resources, while males benefit from pursuing multiple mating partners. This theory helps explain sex differences in mate preferences, jealousy, and parent-offspring conflicts as organisms strive to maximize their inclusive fitness within the constraints of their biological roles.
Sexual selection
This document discusses evolutionary theories around sexual selection and relationships. It explains that sexual selection occurs through intrasexual competition between males to attract females, and intersexual selection where females choose their mates. Research by Buss (1989) found cross-cultural differences in mate preferences, with females prioritizing resources and males prioritizing youth and attractiveness. Studies also show females' preferences change across their menstrual cycle and they favor more masculine traits when fertile. However, critics argue these theories are reductionist and deterministic by not accounting for free will or environmental influences on relationships.
Evolutionary explanation
This document discusses evolutionary explanations for relationships, specifically the concept of sexual selection. It defines sexual selection as the process by which species change over time based on genes that make individuals more attractive to the opposite sex. Sexual selection occurs through mate preference and competition for mates, driving the evolution of physical and behavioral adaptations. Studies find cross-cultural preferences for traits like low waist-to-hip ratios in women, demonstrating the influence of sexual selection on human mate choice and reproductive behavior.
Attachment development
- Schaffer and Emerson proposed a 4-stage theory of attachment development based on their longitudinal study of 60 infants: indiscriminate attachments in the first 2 months, a preference for familiar people by 4 months, discriminate attachments to primary caregivers by 7 months, and the development of multiple attachments by 10 months.
- Their theory was generated from parent reports, which may not have been reliable or valid data and could be subject to biases. The study also used a small, ethnocentrically biased sample from 1960s Glasgow.
- While providing an
Investment model
The Investment Model proposes that commitment to a relationship is predicted by satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and investment. Satisfaction is determined by rewards minus costs. Investment includes resources like shared friends, property, and emotional attachment that would be lost if the relationship ended. Research found students more committed when satisfaction and investments were higher. The model was also applied to abusive relationships, finding highest commitment when investment was high but alternatives were low. However, the model is reductionist in assuming people are purely rational and does not account for differences in expected investments by gender or culture.
Equity theory maintenance
The document outlines and evaluates equity theory, which proposes that people strive for fairness in their relationships. It describes the key assumptions of equity theory, developed by Walster et al in 1978, including that inequity in a relationship can lead to distress and dissatisfaction. Empirical support is provided from a 2006 longitudinal study by Stafford & Canary which found highest relationship satisfaction among couples who experienced equitable relationships one year prior. Potential criticisms of equity theory discussed in the AO3 section include that it is too reductionist, does not account for possible gender differences, and has a cultural bias toward individualistic cultures.
Maintenance of relationships
This document discusses relationship formation and maintenance theories. It focuses on describing the reward/needs satisfaction model of relationship formation, which proposes that people form relationships because they find them rewarding through meeting needs. It then describes social exchange theory of relationship maintenance, which suggests that people maintain relationships that maximize rewards and minimize costs based on comparisons to past relationships and alternative partners. The theory is evaluated as potentially unrealistic, reductionist, and culturally biased by only considering Western perspectives that emphasize individual needs and selfishness.
Reward:need satisfaction theory
This document discusses three theories of relationship formation: the matching hypothesis, filter model, and reward/need satisfaction model. The matching hypothesis suggests that equally matched partners in terms of physical attraction are more likely to form relationships. The filter model identifies social/demographic factors, shared attitudes/values, and complementary emotional needs as important. The reward/need satisfaction model proposes that relationships form and are maintained because they satisfy partners' biological, affiliation, dependency, dominance, aggression, self-esteem, and sex needs through direct and indirect rewards like operant and classical conditioning.
Final recap
The document discusses several evolutionary explanations for human aggression. It describes Lorenz's view that aggression serves three functions - increasing reproductive success, defending sexual partners from cuckoldry through mate retention strategies, and competing with other males over territory and resources. It also discusses research finding links between mate retention behaviors and violence, age/resources/status and male-male homicide rates, and how female aggression tends to be verbal rather than physical. The document outlines that aggression may have evolved from drives to ensure in-group survival through xenophobia.
Group displays
The document discusses evolutionary explanations for different types of human aggression. It describes Lorenz's theory that aggression evolved to increase reproductive success through mate competition and territorial defense. Studies support ideas that sexual jealousy and competition for resources and status drive aggression in males. The document also examines group displays of aggression in sports crowds, lynch mobs, and religious/cultural rituals, applying evolutionary concepts like in-group favoritism, costly signaling of commitment, and the power-threat hypothesis to explain these behaviors. While some evidence supports evolutionary views, alternative factors like culture and individual differences are also acknowledged.
Evolutionary psychology - Aggression
The evolutionary explanation of aggression suggests that aggression evolved to increase reproductive success and the passing on of genes to future generations. Specifically, it proposes that:
- Male aggression is driven by sexual jealousy and the desire to prevent being "cuckolded" by investing resources in offspring that are not their own.
- Male-male competition and aggression over access to females increased as males sought to gain status and reproductive opportunities.
- Territorial aggression and xenophobia against outsiders also evolved to protect resources for one's own group.
However, the explanation is reductionist and does not account for individual differences in aggression or cultural differences in behavior. It also raises ethical issues about free will versus determinism.
Hormonal Explanation of Aggression
This document summarizes research on biological explanations of human aggression, focusing on the role of hormones like testosterone. Several studies are described that found correlations between higher testosterone levels and increased aggression in males, including violent criminals and athletes in aggressive sports. However, the relationship is weak and other factors like cortisol also influence outcomes. While testosterone administration increased aggression in mice studies, human studies had limitations. Overall, the research suggests testosterone may increase social dominance rather than directly cause aggression, and the issue likely involves an interaction of biological and environmental factors.
Neuro explanation
Genetic and neural factors contribute to aggressive behavior. Twin and adoption studies show genetics play a role, with concordance rates of about 48% from twin studies. Lower levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin are linked to increased aggression in animal and human studies. High dopamine may also increase aggression by rewarding such behavior. In the brain, structures like the hypothalamus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex are involved. The hypothalamus and amygdala become more active before and after aggression, while lower prefrontal cortex activation is seen in murderers versus controls. Drug and case studies provide further evidence of the neural and genetic influences on aggression.
Genetic explanation of aggression
Genetic factors play a role in aggressive behavior:
Twin studies show approximately 50% concordance for aggression between twins, suggesting a genetic influence. Adoption studies also find correlations between adoptee and biological parent aggression. Specific genes like MAOA, which regulates serotonin, and the extra Y chromosome in XYY syndrome, have been linked to increased aggression, especially when combined with negative environments. However, genetics alone cannot explain all aggression, as environment also influences behavior.
Dispositional argument
The document discusses the situational vs dispositional debate around the causes of institutional aggression. The dispositional argument claims aggression is due to individual personality traits, while the situational argument says it is caused by environmental factors. The document analyzes quotes from Bush and Gore about the Abu Ghraib scandal, noting Gore argued it showed the dispositional view was incorrect. Studies are presented that both support and contradict the dispositional and situational arguments. The document concludes by discussing how to evaluate the dispositional argument further.
Biological intro
The document summarizes biological approaches to understanding aggression. It will recap social psychological theories, provide an overview of biological factors, and focus on genetic predisposition to aggression. Biological psychologists examine how human biology relating to hormones, neural anatomy, neurotransmitters, and genes can help explain human behavior and experiences, particularly aggression.
Institutional aggression
The document discusses two social psychological theories of aggression: social learning theory and deindividuation theory. Social learning theory proposes that aggression can be learned through observation and modeling of others' aggressive behavior. Deindividuation theory suggests that reduced self-awareness in crowds can lead to disinhibition and increased aggression due to feelings of anonymity. Empirical evidence is presented supporting both theories, though some studies have found inconsistencies. The document also examines situational factors that may contribute to institutional aggression, such as those found in prisons.
Deindividuation evaluation
This document discusses and evaluates deindividuation theory. It begins by outlining the theory and its key aspects, such as how it stemmed from Le Bon's work and the loss of self-awareness described by Diener. Several studies are discussed that provide support, including experiments by Zimbardo, Mann, Watson, and Diener showing increases in anti-social and aggressive behaviors when individuals feel anonymous in groups. However, some research also challenges aspects of the theory, such as work by Postmes and Spears, and Gergen that found lowered inhibitions did not always lead to aggression. The document concludes by outlining a potential 20 mark question evaluating deindividuation theory as an explanation for aggression.
L3 violence in the media
This document discusses several social psychological theories of aggression and debates about the links between media violence and aggression. It provides an example study from 1972 by Eron that found a positive correlation between viewing violent media and aggressive behavior. It also summarizes a 2000 study by Charlton et al. that found no evidence that violent media causes increased aggression. The document includes evaluation questions about the Charlton et al. study and discusses preparation for exam questions on explanations of aggression.
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L3 cognitive comparisons
- 2. Cognitive Development To Start: Match it. 3 minutes Slaby & Frey Kohlberg Martin & Halverson Hoffman Fagot Proposed Gender Schema Theory Proposed Gender Constancy Theory Found that children who had working mothers gender stereotypes. Found that children who can correctly label spent 80% of their time in same sex groups. Those can’t spend 50% of their time with same-gender Conducted a structured interview and found that childrens’ perceptions of gender were not stable time until the age of 3 or 4 years.
- 3. Today we will consider… • How can Gender Constancy Theory and Gender Schema theory be compared? • How can the cognitive approach to gender as a whole be evaluated? (A03) Cognitive Development
- 4. Re-Cap on Cognitive Theories so far… Cognitive Development 10 Minutes Complete the table on AO1 and AO2 of Kohlberg’s Constancy Theory and Martin and Halverson’s Gender Schema Theory Be as brief as you can, this is only a recap! Use bullet points only! GST GCT AO1 Stud -ies AO2 AO2
- 5. What’s the difference between the theories? Cognitive Development Critical difference is between when the two theories predict that children will begin to absorb gender-relevant knowledge. Kohlberg = Gender Constancy Martin and Halverson = Gender Identity, or as soon as the children have some awareness or which group they belong to.
- 6. Stangor and Ruble (1989): The Compromise! Cognitive Development Argue that the two approaches should be unified. They argue that the two theories represent two different mental processes: - Gender Schema is concerned with the organisation of information and is therefore linked to memory. - Gender Constancy theory is concerned with motivation. When you find out you are a girl and always going to be a girl, you are motivated to find out about the role and behave in gender appropriate ways. They tested children aged 4 to ten years. Findings: 1) Memory and organisation for gender consistent pictures increased with age (Gender Schema Theory) 2) The preference for same sex toys increased with gender constancy (Gender Constancy Theory). How can this be used as AO2 for the Cognitive Approach?
- 7. A03 in groups… Cognitive Development 10 Minutes In 3 groups… How could you create a strong AO3 point about cognitive development theories of gender? Group 1: Nature vs. Nurture Group 2: Determinism vs. Free Will Group 3: Temporal Validity
- 8. Nature or Nature? Cognitive Development Cognitive developmental theory and Gender schema theory ignores the role of genes and hormones in gender development. According to the biological approach it is these which determine your genetic sex (whether you are male or female) and also influence your sense of maleness or femaleness.
- 9. Determinism? Cognitive Development Inflexibility of gender schemas as the children have little choice in choosing what gender they will end up as, with them being strongly influenced by socialisation that is out of their control.
- 10. Real world application? Cognitive Development How far can cognitive approaches be applied today? Gender Schema’s and stereotypes are not necessarily applicable today with the changing roles of men and women. More women are going to work instead of conforming to the traditional house wife role.
- 11. How would other approaches evaluate the cognitive approach to gender? Cognitive Development Biological Evolutionary Biosocial
- 12. To Finish… “ Discuss Cognitive Development Theory” Cognitive Development 5 minutes Bullet point: How would you answer the ‘discuss’ element of the question? How would you approach the A02/A03?