as requested.

1. Approaches
Cognitive assumptions-
1. Cognitive psychologists
focus on an internal stage
(stimulus-info processing-response)
2. These mental processes that
cognitive psychologists focus
on include memory,
perception, thinking and
language.
3. The main assumption of the
cognitive approach is that
information received from
our senses is processed by
the brain and that this
processing directs how we
behave or at least justifies
how we behave the way
that we do.
Developmental assumptions-
1. A main assumption
therefore of the
developmental approach
is that cognitive,
emotional and
behavioural
development is an
ongoing process and that
such changes result from
an interaction of nature
and nurture.
2. A strength of the
developmental approach
is that many studies in
this area are longitudinal
which means that they do
get to investigate changes
and how these changes
are influenced.
Social Psychology-
1. All behaviour occurs
within a social
context. A major
influence on people’s
behaviour, thoughts
and feelings are other
people and society
2. This area of
Psychology focuses
research on our social
behaviours. These
areas include helping,
obedience,
conformity, prejudice,
aggression and
attraction.

2. Individual differences-
1. The main assumption of
the individual differences
perspective is that to
understand the
complexity of human
behaviour and
experiences it necessary
to study the differences
between people rather
than those things that
we all have in common.
For example the
individual differences
approach largely focuses
on things such as
personality differences,
and abnormality.
…social psychology-
1. One of the debates in
psychology is whether
an individual's
behaviour is a result of
their personality or
their social context.
2. According to social
psychologists our
behaviour is influenced
by the actual, imagined
or implied presence of
others
3. Social Psychology looks
at the influence of the
individual, the group,
the society and the
culture on individual’s
behaviour.
Biological –
1. The main assumption
of the physiological
approach is therefore
that behaviour and
experience can be
explained by
physiological changes.
This approach
investigates the brain,
the nervous system
and other biological
factors such as
hormones.
2. Furthermore the
physiological approach
takes a scientific
approach using
laboratory type
experiments

3. Piaget Stages
Sensory motor stage
• Birth to 18 months
• Child learns to match their senses to what they can do
Pre-operational stage
• 18 months to 7 years
• Child learns to use symbolism and language and developing general
rules about mental operations
Concrete operational stage
7 to 12 years
Child can use sophisticated mental operations but is still limited in ways
for example they tend to think of how the world is not how it might be
Formal Operational Stage
• 12 years and above
•Most sophisticated stage, governed by logical thinking
Piaget said
children were
unable to
conserve up
until the
concrete
operational
stage however
Samuel and
Bryant found
children as
young as 5
could
conserve.
Piagets test
involved two
questions.

4. Freud Stages
Oral (0-1)
Child gets satisfaction
from putting objects in
the mouth
Anal (1-3)
Pleasure from passing
faeces
Phallic (3-6)
Becomes aware of
anatomical gender
differences and gets
pleasure from genitals
Latency (6-puberty)
Libido is dormant and
hidden. Childs energy
focused on games
Genital (puberty +)
Adult sex and consensual
sex with a partner rather
than playing with self like
phallic

5. Pavlov Conditioning (behaviourists)
• Using association to create
fear or a certain behaviour
• Little Albert fear of rabbit
by banging iron bar Classical
• Using reward and
punishment to create
certain behaviour
• Mouse experiment Operant

6. Loftus and Palmer
• Cognitive
• Eye witness
• Effect of leading questions

7. Aim
• Investigate accuracy of memory and the
effect of leading questions.
Method
•45 students
•5 groups
•Shown seven film clips of traffic accidents
•Given questionnaire which asked them to
describe the accident and answer specific
questions
•Critical question: “About how fast were the
cars going when they hit each other?” One
group was given this
•Other 4 groups were given other verbs in the
place of hit such as “smashed” “collided”
“bumped” or “contacted”

8. Results
The group given the word
smashed estimated the
speed of the cars was
higher than the other
groups, the group given
collided estimated lower.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Contacted
Hit
Bumped
Collided
Smashed
Series 1
Series The results show that leading
questions can affect the accuracy
of memory. There are two
explanations:
Response bias : the critical verb
influences the persons response
Memory representation is altered
: the verb actually changes the
perception of the accident

9. Experiment 2
Aim
To see if leading questions
altered the memory or if it is
response bias
Method:
Part 1
•New group of 150 students
•PX shown one minute film with contained a
four second multiple car accident
•Three groups of Px asked questions
including the critical question
•Group 1 asked “smashed”
•Group 2 asked “hit”
•Group 3 asked nothing (control)
Part 2
•One week later px were asked “did you see
any broken glass” there was no broken glass
but this was to see if the leading question
could alter the perception

10. Results
The results in part 1 were same as in
experiment 1.
Part 2 found that px in the “smashed”
group 1 were more likely to say they saw
broken glass.
0 2 4 6
Control
Hit
Smashed
No
Yes
Memory is determined by:
•Ones own perception at
the time of the event
•External info supplied after
(leading questions)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SP8kJ5A5x
U8

11. Baron-cohen Eyes Test

12. Starters
Theory of Mind:
Theory of mind is the
ability to infer or interpret
other peoples emotions
and state of mind
Autism:
Difficulty with social
relationships
Not understanding
gestures of facial
expressions
Aspergers:
Normal intelligence with
normal speech but limited
social skills

13. Aim:
To assess if autism and aspergers comes from
a lack of theory of mind. To use a test which is
completely ToM instead of the sally-anne test.
Sally Anne test:
Sally puppet putting her ball in her basket
Anne moves the ball to the box
Sally returns and the first order question is
“Where will sally look for the ball?”
The second order question is “Where does
Anne think Sally will look for the ball?”
This test had a ceiling effect as it was
designed for 6 year olds meaning if used on
adults it can only show they have a ToM of a 6
year old.
Baron – Cohen set out to develop The Eyes
Task.

14. Method
Participants:
Group 1 –
16 people with Aspergers with
normal intelligence. 13 men and 3
women. Recruited by doctors and a
magazine.
Group 2 –
50 age matched controls (25 male 25
female)
Group 3 –
10 Tourette px also age matched with
group 1 and 2
8 men and 2 women
Similar childhood experiences and
same part of brain associated
All px passed 1st and 2nd order test
for 6 year olds
Procedure:
Eyes task comprises of 25 black and
white photos of male and females taken
of the eye region.
Each picture shown for 3 seconds and px
given forced choice question, choosing
between two mental states.
There were basic mental states (happy
sad) and complex mental states
(arrogant and scheming)
Judgement on what was correct was
done by a panel of 4 judges and
confirmed by independent 8 more
judges
Strange stories and control tasks
(gender recognition and basic emotion
task)

15. Results
The Autistic px performed
significantly worse than the
Tourette and control group.
As only two choices
available the px could have
scored maximum 15 out of
25 by chance, only 8 autistic
performed better than
chance.
Females performed slightly
better.
•Adults with autism have ToM defecit despite
have normal intelligence
•The test had no context and was pure ToM
•Ecological validity – the pictures are still unlike
real life people so reading the emotions may not
mirror reality
•Often autistic people find it difficult to hold eye
contact with people
•Genetic factors may account for the female
tendency to do better
Mean score Range
Autistic/Aspergers 16.3/25 13-23
Normal 20.3/25 16-25
Tourettes 20.4/25 16-25

16. Savage-Rumbaugh - Kanzi

17. Washoe – 8 months at
start
Taught American sign
language and could use
about 250 signs
Washoe was
encouraged to imitate.

18. Aim
To study human language capabilities in pygmy chimpanzees. To get true comprehension
rather than just imitation.
Method
Subjects:
•Kanzi aged 30-47 months, research found they are brighter chimps
•Mulika, Kanzi’s sister aged 11-21 months
•Common chimps, Austin and Sherman to study as comparisons
Communication system –
Lexigram with symbols on an electronic board with a later addition of a speech synthesiser
so words were spoken for the symbol
Early learning –
Age 6 months Kanzi watched Mother Matata use lexigram, no intentional teaching for
Kanzi. One and a half years Kanzi showed interest in lexigram.
Kanzi developed preference for human company
Mulika observed Kanzi using the lexigram

19. Outdoors –
Food was placed at 17 locations within the 55acre forest. The name of each food
matched the name of each site.
Kanzi was shown various food items and asked to Indicate which he wanted, then taken
to the right location. Within four months Kanzi could select a photo and guide others to
the right place. Later he used symbols alone and Mulika could too.
Data –
Lexigrams indoors automatically recorded a symbol pressed by Kanzi, outdoors symbols
recorded by hand.
Each utterance was classified as 1. correct or incorrect
2. Spontaneous or imitated or structured (used to see if chimps could give specific
answer)
Vocabulary –
To count a word as acquired it had to be a spontaneous utterance. For example if Kanzi
indicated he wanted to go to the tree house and then went there.
In order to assess the reliability of observations 4 ½ hours of observations made in real
time and on video tape were compared.
At the end of the project Kanzi and Mulika were formally tested on all the words in their
vocab. Tested by being shown photos and asked to click right symbol on lexigram

21. Results
Untutored
gestures:
Kanzi and Mulika
used explicit
gestures to
communicate
Associative Usage-
Kanzi first heard
strawbs at mushroom
site and so associated
it with there but then
he could have context
free situations later
on.
Lexigram –
Watched by
Matata using
them, Mulika
started using them
at 12 months,
earlier than Kanzi

22. Progress- Kanzi
acquired 46 words
and Mulika 37.
Mulikas rate of
acquisition was
slower than Kanzi’s
Combinations – Kanzi
had multisymbol
expressions. Over 17
months Kanzi produced
2,540 combinations
nonimitative and 265
imitative. 764 were only
ever produced once
The proportion of
imitated utterances
to spontaneous was
similar to children
15% imitation 80%
spontaneous
Kanzi didn’t
refer to
himself in his
phrases and
mostly to
games
Kanzi and Mulika
did better on
formal tests
than
Austin&Sherma
n

23. K&M could select
photos when
prompted by
lexigram and by
spoken word but
had trouble with
synthesiser
Travel-
When K was 3 years old,
a visitor who had never
been in the woods was
taken as a blind visitor
by Kanzi to a location he
chose. When the visitor
asked to be taken to
places Kanzi took them.
General observations
K&M made generalisations
for words such as tomato for
other red fruits. Kanzi used
words in different ways, he
would say juice and go to the
juice location but not drink
juice meaning he meant the
place name

24. K&M grasped using words much
quicker than Austin and Sherman
who needed extensive training
Matata needed extensive training
also which may suggest there is a
critical age for language acquisition
K&M are the only chimps to have
been recorded using language and
symbols with no contextual cues
Kanzi could direct someone else to
do something for example to request
A to do something to B when he was
not A or B. This is beginning to use
syntax, enabling to structure a story.
Difficult to generalise as such a small
sample
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QBlDGX95
eys

25. Bandura Experiment

26. Aim
• To see if learning took place in one situation
could be generalised to another situation
• To see if children imitated aggressive
behaviour
• To assess the social learning theory

27. Method
• Participants were children
from a university nursery
aged between 3-5 years old
• There were two adult
‘models’ male and female
and a female experimenter
•There were two groups and one control
group
•Group one observed an aggressive model
•Group two observed a non aggressive
model
•Control group of 24 children had no
model
•Each group 1 and 2 were divided into 4
groups-
Boys watching male models
Boys watching female models
Girls watching female models
Girls watching male models
•Making a total of 8 groups with 6 subjects
This means there are
3 independent
variables in this study
–
The behaviour of the
model
The sex of the subject
The sex of the model
To give the same aggression levels in
children, each was rated by teachers and
assigned at random to each group

28. What happened?
Each child was taken to a room and sat
in the corner and made to settle in with
colouring. The model was escorted to
the opposite corner where a tinker toy
set, chair and table and inflatable Bobo
doll with mallet was.
Non – Aggressive model:
The model assembled the tinker
toy set calmly and ignored the
doll
Aggressive condition:
The model turned aggressive
towards the Bobo doll. They
punched the doll in the nose,
stuck the doll with the mallet,
kicking it and throwing it whilst
saying “hes coming back for
more” and “hit him down”
Control group:
The children did not have a
model

29. Aggression arousal –
The experimenters provoked
the children because
observing aggressive
behaviour may reduce
imitation due to feeling
intimidated.
The children were taken to another room with
attractive toys like a fighter plane and let to
play, then the experimenter took away the
toys and said she was reserving them for other
children to provoke them.
Then the child was taken to
another room filled with
aggressive toys (dart gun, bobo
doll and mallet) and non
aggressive toys (tea set, crayons
and plastic animals)
Each child was observed from
behind a blacked out mirror by the
male model or another observer
every 5 seconds.
Giving a total of 240 responses of
the childs actions.
They were recorded as:
•Imitative aggression responses
Physical
Verbal aggression
Non- aggressive verbal responses
•Partially imitative responses
Mallet aggression (uses it on toys
other than bobo)
Sits on bobo doll not aggressively
•Non imitative responses
Strikes bobo doll
Aggressive acts towards other toys
Aggressive gun play

30. Results
Complete imitation-
Children in the aggressive
model group imitated both
verbal and physical
aggressive behaviour.
In contrast children in the
non aggressive model group
showed very few imitations
of aggressive behaviour. 70%
scored zero
Partial imitation was
similar results to the
complete imitation
Non-imitative behaviour-
The aggression model
group displayed more non-imitative
behaviour than
the non aggressive model
group
Non aggressive behaviour-
Children in the non aggressive model
group spent more time playing without
any aggression
Overall the aggressive model
group, group 1 was more
aggressive, more imitative and
less calm than group 2.

31. All children
behaved
aggressively
in some way
at some
stage
Gender-
The male models had a greater influence than the female
models
Boys imitated more physical aggression
Boys were more aggressive
The closest imitation was when a child observed a model of
the same sex

32. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zerCK0lRjp
8

33. Samuel and Bryant
Background:
Piaget began working on children's ability
to conserve and Rose and Blank
conducted a slight variation of Piaget’s
study.
In Piagets study the children were asked
2 questions before and after the
transformation.
In Rose and Blanks the children were
only asked after the transformation took
place.
Children often succeeded more in Rose
and Blanks study.
Aim:
To investigate
whether
children under
the age of 8 are
able to
understand
changes in
quantity
(conservation)

34. 252 girls and boys aged 5-8 were divided in four groups:
•5 years 3 months
•6 years 3 months
•7 years 3 months
•8 years 3 months
Each group was divided into task groups
Standard condition:
Given tradition Piaget
style study, asked two
questions
One judgement:
Asked one question
after display was
changed
Fixed Array:
Saw last display after
change and asked
question, control
group, shows
whether children
need pre
transformation info to
answer second Q

35. Mass – Pre transformation
Two equal cylinders
Two unequal cylinders

36. Post transformation
One cylinder squashed

37. Number – Pre transformation
2 rows of 6
counters
arranged
identically
One row of 5
One row of 6
Same length

38. Post transformation
One row is spread out so rows
are not equal

39. Volume – Pre transformation
Two identical
glasses with same
amounts of liquid
Two identical
glasses with
different
amount

40. Post transformation
Liquid is
poured from
one to a
narrower
one

41. Age Standard 1 Question Fixed array
5 8 7 9
6 6 4 6
7 3 3 5
8 2 1 3
Results:
•No differences found in equal and unequal
conditions
•Older children made fewer mistakes
•Children made fewest errors when shown the
transformation and asked only one question
•Children made fewer mistakes on number
task
•Children did worse on fixed array which
means children use information from pre
transformation to answer final question
because the fixed array group didn’t have this
info
Results indicate failure
on Piaget’s two question
test was partly due to
being asked two
questions and getting
confused.
Children can use
conservation but may
get confused or lead by
questions.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu8
15o

42. Freud (Background)
ID, Ego, Superego
The ID stands for ‘it’ in latin, it is the primitive drives and desires
that we are born with. Sexual desires and hunger are in this part.
This is entirely unconscious.
As we grow older we develop the Ego, this conflicts with the ID
as it makes our ID behave, in society we cannot act out or get our
desires straight away. The Superego is about what is right and
wrong in society, conflicting with the ID once more.
Freud believed our conscious makes up a small part of our
personality, the unconscious has our beliefs, emotions and
impulses that are pushed down and not available to us in the
conscious mind because of the anxiety they could cause,
however they do affect our behaviour nonetheless.

43. Oedipus Complex
Oedipus Greek Myth story -
As a child, an old man told Oedipus that he was adopted,
and that he would eventually kill his biological father and
sleep with his biological mother
Freud thinks that children are born with desires, they play
with their mouth first (oral stage) then they move to gain
pleasure from passing poo!! (anal stage) then they focus
on their genitals (phallic stage)Their mother is the first
source of affection and erotic feelings, during phallic
stage a boy wants to possess his mother and feels
competition with the father, he fears he will lose his willy
if he thinks this way so takes on the behaviour of his rival
his father.

44. Aim:
To Test the oedipus complex on a real child and explain origin of
phobias
Little Hans is the
participant, aged
between 3 and 5
during the case
study. Hans father
recorded events
and conversations
with Hans and sent
them to Freud.
Hans met Freud and
psychoanalysed
him.
Hans and his little widdler
At 3 Hans started playing with his willy, he
assumed both animals and his parents must
have big ones,. He kicked about when
touching his willy or pooing showing he loved
it.
His mother found him playing with it and said
she would get it cut off, this lead to Hans
being scared of losing his willy and having to
repress these desires. He felt sexual desire for
his mother which was also repressed and
expressed in wanting to kiss other girls.

45. Hans felt competition with his father and
expressed his conflicting aggression and love by
kicking him and then kissing where he hit.
When Hans was 3 ½ his little sister was born, he
didn’t like sharing his mother and admitted
watching his sister in the bath and wishing his
mother would let go of her, this unconscious
desire to see her drown translated into a fear
that his mother could drown him too.
Mother - he had sexual desires for her but she
had threatened to cut his willy off so this created
anxieties.
Father – Rival, conflicting love and aggression
Sister- He wished Hanna would drown which led
to anxiety over mother drowning him

46. PHOBIA!
When Hans was 4 ½ he developed a fear that a white
horse would bite him, Freud said this reflected a fear
he would lose his mother.
It was partly based on a real event – hans heard a
man warn his daughter a white horse would bite her
It linked to his mother telling him it was not right if
she touched his willy, the link was if you touch a
white horse it will bite you, if someone else touches
your widdler its wrong
Hans had anxieties that his mother would leave him
because of his request
His father told him women have no willies so he
thought his mothers had been cut off!

47. Giraffe Dream –
“in the night there was a big giraffe and a crumpled
one, the big one called out when I took the crumpled
one, then I sat on the crumpled one” The big giraffe
represented Hans father or his fathers penis and the
crumpled one was his mother vagina. Hans would
come into their bed in the morning and his father
would warn his mother not to (the giraffe calling out)
Hans sits on his mothers lap (sitting on crumpled
one)

48. The Plumber dream-
“I was in the bath and the plumber came and
unscrewed it and stuck a borer in my stomach”
interpreted as Hans was in bed with his mum then
Daddy came and pushed me away with his big penis.
His fantasy was that the plumber took off his bum
and willy and replaced them with a presumably
bigger one like his fathers, this showed he wants to
be like his father.

49. Babies –
Hans was interested in laden carts and lumf (poo) he
thought a heavy cart was like a pregnant woman and
babies were lumfs, when Hanna was born he was
told babies came from storks but he thought that his
mother had pooed Hanna out. Hans called carts
‘stork box carts’ because his mum said babies came
from storks and he thought they were like a cart with
lumf in, this box brought the baby (pregnancy
complex)
Finally they explained babies came from inside
mummy.
Hans had an ongoing fantasy of having his own
children and being their daddy

50. If Hans was abnormal then the study
is invalid, Freud said that such acts
are common in childhood.
The analysis was conducted by his
father and so could have been
influenced
However there were benefits of a
close relationship with this method
as Hans could open up.
Freud concluded that Little Hans
supported his theory of the oedipus
complex and fatherly rivalry.
Freud concluded phobias where
repressed anxieties, phobias are
triggered by real events but
represented unconscious anxieties.
http://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=uRyGSwEK_Yg

51. Brain Scanning
PET scanner – positron emission tomography, patients injected with radioactive
glucose, when the most active brain tissue uses the glucose the scanner picks up the
radioactivity. It is presented as a picture of coloured ‘hot spots’
MRI – magnetic resonance imaging – Strong magnetic field turned on and off, atoms of
brain change alignment and the scanner maps the structure of the tissue
CAT- computerised axial tomography – taking a series of x-rays to show areas of
damage
Hippocampus - It belongs to the limbic system and plays
important roles in long-term memory and spatial navigation. Like
the cerebral cortex, with which it is closely associated, it is a
paired structure, with mirror-image halves in the left and right
sides of the brain

52. Maguire – spatial
memory

53. Aim
To demonstrate that the
hippocampus is the region in the
brain associated with spatial
memory and navigation. To look
at morphological changes of the
hippocampus in taxi drivers who
need navigational skills.

54. Method
Participants –
•16 London Taxi Drivers
•Right-handed
•Age range 32-62
•Licensed drivers for more than 1.5 years
•Healthy
•Control group of 16 matched pairs
Procedure –
Data was collected using MRI scans analysed
by two techniques.
Method 1 – VBM
Voxel based morphometry, unbiased method.
VBM identifies differences in the density of
grey matter, grey matter lies on the surface of
the brain and also deep inside structures such
as the hippocampus it is the most dense part
in neural connections suggesting high order
thinking.
Method 2 Pixel counting –
Hippocampul volume was calculated using a pixel
counting technique. The pixels were counted
from the images from the MRI. Each scan was
made of a slice of the hippocampus there were
24 slices lying next to eachother each slice 1.5
mm thick. The professional counting the pixels
was blind to which group it came from. They
added up pixels from each slice and multiplied
this by the distance between adjacent slices.
They altered this to count for bigger brains in
people.

55. The slices covered were
•Anterior hippocapus (6
slices)
•Body hippocampus (12
slices)
•Poesterior hippocampus
(6 slices)
VBM – Between the controls and the taxi
drivers the only part of brain with more grey
matter was the right and left hippocampi.
It was mainly increased in the taxi drivers
posterior hippocampi and in the controls the
anterior hippocampi had more grey matter.
Pixel counting-
There was no significant difference between
the taxi drivers and the control in terms of
method 1 (intercranial volume) and method 2
(total hippocampi volume) with pixel
counting.
The taxi drivers posterior hippocampus was
larger than the controls.
The amount of time spent being a taxi driver
increased the right posterior hippocampus
but did not increase the anterior
hippocampus.
Left
Hippocampus
Right
Hippocampus
Anterior Control
Body Control
Posterior Taxi Drivers Taxi Drivers

56. What results show…
The results indicate there is a relationship between
navigational skills and the distribution of grey matter, i.e
increased grey matter in the posterior hippocampus in taxi
drivers with better navigational skills.
Nature or Nurture? –
Whether the distribution is an effect of training navigational
skills or whether it is present in some individuals which
predisposes them to take a job like taxi driving. This was
tested by looking at the correlation between time spent as a
taxi driver and hippocampus increase, this showed it
increased with more training so this was acquired.
The right and left hippocampus were different, the left not
correlating with taxi driving experience which suggests it is of
use for other spatial memory
The posterior could basically borrow grey matter from the
anterior when navigational skills are in demand.

57. Determinism

58. Determinism is the idea that every event is casually
determined by an unbroken chain of prior events.
According to this idea there are no mysterious miracles and
no random events.
Freud argued our behaviour is caused by unconscious
processes, we might think we are acting freely but in fact
our behaviour is predictable and forced.
Everything happens for a reason etc as the chaos theory
explains little events lead to major events.
Biological psychologists have recently backed up
determinism as brain scans show brain changes alter our
behaviour such as Raine’s experiment on murderers having
frontal lobe damage.

59. Ways to measure sleep-
Brain wave activity measured by
EEG
Electric activity of muscle by
EMG
Eye movement by EOG
REM- rapid eye movement is
when you dream.
The stages of sleep go throw
waves of brain activity first
•Beta
•Alpha
•Theta
•Delta
Normal night of sleep-
Sleeper progress through 4
stages ending up in REM this is
followed by returning through
stages 4 to 2 and then back to
REM. This cycle is repeated
throughout the night taking
approx 90 minutes.

60. Awake –
Beta waves in brain as
you become relaxed
they become slower,
more regular and are
alpha waves, same as
meditation
1&2-
Brain waves slow
down called theta
waves. Greater
amplitude and
frequency. Gradual
transition from
relaxed to asleep
3&4-
Delta waves which are
slowest and highest
amplitude. This is when
sleepwalking occurs
REM- dream sleep.
Lack of muscle tone
creates temporary
paralysis with EEG
activity similar to
awake stage.

61. Dement and Kleitman – Dream activity
The relationship between eye movements and dreaming demonstrates that
REM sleep and dreaming are the same thing
IV – REM/NREM sleep (not controlled)
DV – Whether they could recall their dream
Variables – Time awoken

62. Method
On day of experiment participants were told to
eat and drink normally but abstain from alcohol
or caffeine drinks.
Electrodes were attached around the px eyes to
measure EOG and attached to px head to record
brain waves EEG the px then went to sleep at
their normal sleep time in a dark room.
At various times during the night the px were
awoken by a bell during REM sleep or just before
or after. They were awoken 5.7 times a night and
slept for 6 hours.
Participants- Nine
adults: 7 male 2
female

63. The investigators used various different patterns for awakening the five
most intensively studied participants. They used a table of random
numbers, one px was awoken three times during REM sleep and NREM
and one was told he would be awoken during REM sleep but was
awoken randomly during REM and NREM. None of the px were told if
they had just been in REM when they were awoken.
The px were told to speak into recording device near their bed stating a)
whether they had been dreaming b) describe the dream c) whether
they were dreaming for 5-15 minutes.
Recording done without an investigator present made sure there was
less investigator effect , however the investigator was listening from
outside and occasionally came into the room to clarify and question.
After this the participants usually fell back to sleep within 5 minutes.

64. Results
Occurrence of REM activity-
•All participants had REM every night
•REM correlated with fast EEG
•When no REM present there were periods of
deeper sleep shown by slow wave activity
•No REM occurred during onset of sleep
•REM periods lasted 3-5o minutes, mean 20
minutes.
•REM tended to get longer the later in the night.
•Eye movement was not constant in REM but
bursts of 2-100 movements
•Recall was better when PX were awoken within 8
minutes of an REM period
•When px were awoken in NREM sleep they were
disorientated and couldn’t remember specific
content of a dream
•Most instances of dreams unable to recall in REM
sleep occurred in the early part of the night

65. •REM periods occurred at regular
intervals, individual for each px
•Despite being awoken REM was still
frequent the same as undisturbed
•If px was awakened during an REM
period during the final hours of sleep they
usually went back into REM as if the brain
activity had not finished
Px REM sleep
%
NREM sleep
%
DN 65% 12.5%
IR 76% 6%
KC 90% 9%
WD 88% 3%
PM 80% 8%
Method 1- Eye movements period and dream recall
PX were considered to be dreaming only if they had a detailed description of
dream content.
The five most intensely studied px were labelled DN, IR, KC, WD, PM. The table
shows the percentage of the amount of dreams recalled out of the amount of
times Px were awoken, for example DN recalled 17 dreams out of the 24 times he
was awoken so 7 times he was awoken in REM sleep he couldn’t recall his dreams,
a percentage of 65%. There was a high incidence of recall in REM sleep and low in
NREM sleep. In REM sleep there was only 20% no recall in total and in NREM there
was 93% no recall in total.

66. Method 2-
Length of REM periods
To see if REM and dreams are correlated further REM period length and the
estimated duration of a dream was examined.
This was done by awakening px 5-15 minutes after the onset of REM sleep
and asking them to decide which duration they thought it was.
5 minutes 15 minutes
PX Right Wrong Right Wrong
DN 8 2 5 5
IR 11 1 7 3
KC 7 0 12 1
WD 13 1 15 1
PM 6 2 8 3
Total 45 6 47 13
Participants were mainly
correct in their judgement of
how long they thought their
dream had been

67. Method 3-
Eye movement patterns and visual imagery of the dream.
It was propose the variation in eye movements may
correspond to where and what the dreamer was looking
at in their dream.
To investigate this px were awoken when their eye
movements were mainly vertical or horizontal, both or
neither.
Type of eye movement Content
Vertical – 3 dreams reported •Standing at bottom of cliff
and looking at climbers
•Climbing ladders
•Shooting at basketball net
looking up
Horizontal – 1 dream reported Two people throwing
tomatoes at eachother
Both- 10 dreams Looking at things close to
them
Neither -21 dreams Watching something in the
distance

68. Sperry

69. Starters- Cerebral cortex-
•Largest part
•Cortex is specific to
mammals
•Divided into 4 lobes-
•Frontal lobe –
reasoning, planning,
problem
solving,emotions
•Parietal lobe (top) –
movement,
orientation
•Occipital lobe (back)
– visual processing
•Temporal lobe
(sides)- memory and
speech
Corpus Callosum –
Connects left and right
hemispheres.
Thalamus –
Relay station for signals
from senses (skin,
stomach, eyes) It analyses
signals and sends them on
Hypothalamus –
Controls body
temperature, hunger
and thirst. Involved in
emotions and sexual
activity.
Cerebellum- has two
hemispheres.
Coordination,
movement, posture
and balance
Brain stem – major route of
communication between spinal
cord and brain. Controls heart
rhythms.
The left side of the body is
controlled by the right
hemisphere and vice versa.

70. Aim
To study the psychological
effects of hemispheric
disconnection in split brain
patients and to show how
the right and left
hemispheres work in normal
patients. Previous split-brain
studies with humans showed
no important behavioural
effects.
The participants had all undergone hemisphere
disconnection because they had a history of advanced
epilepsy which could not be controlled by medication.

71. Participants –
The participants were 11
‘split-brain’ patients who
had suffered severe
epilepsy.
The study also makes use
of the case study method.
The case studies were in-depth
investigations of the
11 participants.
Method
Procedure-
The method used was a natural (also
called quasi) experiment. The quasi-experiments
involved comparing the
performance of the 11 participants on
various tasks with the performance of
people with no inter-hemisphere
disconnection. The independent
variable was therefore the whether a
person had hemisphere disconnection
or not and the dependent variable was
the participants performance on the
tasks.
The tasks were carried out in
laboratory conditions, using
specialised equipment and were highly
standardised. The tasks all involved
setting tasks separately to the two
hemispheres.
The task involved blindfolding one of the
participant’s eyes and then asking them to fixate
with the seeing eye on a point in the middle of a
screen. The researchers would then project a
stimulus on either the left or right hand side of the
fixation point for less than 1/10 of a second. The
presentation time is so small to ensure that the
participant does not have time for eye movement as
this would ‘spread’ the information across both sides
of the visual field and therefore across both sides of
the brain.

72. Results
•If a picture is projected in one visual field
it is only recognised in that visual field.
•If visual material appeared on the right
visual field (left hemisphere) the patient
could describe it in speech and words
•If the same visual material was projected
to the left field (right hemisphere) the
participant said they could see nothing
but a flash(lang is on the left hemisphere)
•This showed the right hemisphere
cannot speak or write.
$ and ? Signs –
If a $ is flashed to the left
visual field (right
hemisphere) and ? Is flashed
to the right visual field (left
hemisphere) the patient will
write the $ and say the ?
Using touch- Objects placed in
the right hand (left hem) can
be named in speech and
writing. Objects in left hand
(right hem) can only be
guessed at.
Dual Processing task –
No cooporation between
hemispheres, if two
objects are placed in each
hand and then hidden in
pile of objects both hands
select their own object
and ignore the other
hands object.

73. Everyday effects –
Split brain patients often don’t experience the
deconnection found in everyday life as it is only
apparent when visual material is displayed quickly.
In everyday life they can say an answer or move
their eyes to share info between the hemispheres.
Their IQ and personalities do not change from
deconnection but in complex activities and have
limited attention spans and problems with short
term memory.
Closing notes – Patients seem to have two minds in one body.
Each side of the brain has different functions.

74. Video Links
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w36S84hu
Zyw&list=PL1AECFA54C777980C
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=crmDSDeC
Ep4

75. Milgram – Obedience
DV- the level of shock at which PX
stopped

76. Aim
The issue of obedience is relevant to WWII when the
Germans systematically slaughtered millions of innocent
people. Obedience may be deeply ingrained in the
human character.
The aim was to investigate the process of obedience and
to demonstrate the power of authority.
Participants:
Milgram advertised for 500
new Haven men to come
to Yale uni for “learning”
tests.
Everyone was to be paid
$4.50 simply for coming
and would be paid
whether they stayed in the
study or not.
•40 men
•Aged between 20-50
•Various occupations
•Part of experiementer was
played by a biology teacher
dressed in lab coat.
•The learner or victim was
played by a 47 year old
accountant
•Both were Milgrams
confederates

77. Method
Each px was told the experimenter wanted
to see how punishment would affect
learning. Each study would involved 1
teacher and 1 learner.
The learner and teacher were taken to a
room where the learner was strapped into
an electric chair. The learner was advised
“although shocks are extremely painful
they will not leave permanent tissue
damage”
The teacher was asked to read a
series of word pairs to the learner
and then read the first word of the
pair along with four terms. The
learner had to indicate which of the
four terms was originally paired with
the first word.
The shock machine had 30 switches
labelled with a number from 15 to
450 volts.
To convince the teacher the shocks
were real they were given a 45 volt
shock.
Teacher was told to give a shock for
the wrong asnwer and to move a
level higher each time.
A pilot study showed it takes a while for
the subjects to get it right. The teacher
was given 10 words and the learner made
7 errors so reached a shock of 105 volts

78. The learner had a predetermined
set of responses, giving approx 3
wrong answers to every correct
answer.
The learner made no sign of
protest until 300 volts, at this point
he pounded on the wall but then
ceased to make any further
response to questions.
The subject usually turned to
the experimenter and asked
what to do, he was told wait 5-
10 seconds before treating the
lack of response as wrong and
increasing the shock. At 315
the learner pounded again but
then nothing more
If the subject turned back to the
experimenter and asked the
experimenter was trained to give
a set response of “prods” made
in sequence. If the subject
refused to obey prod 4 the
experiment was terminated
Prod 1 Please continue
Prod 2 The experiment requires
that you continue
Prod 3 It is absolutely essential
you continue
Prod 4 You have no other choice
you must go on
Extra prods Although shocks are
painful they will not leave
permanent damage
“” Whether the learner likes
it or not you must go on

79. Each subject was scored
between 0 and 30 depending on
when they terminated the
experiment.
Most sessions were taped and
some photographs taken
through one way mirrors.
Observers wrote descriptions of
subjects behaviour.
All subjects were interviewed
after and asked open questions.
They were given some
psychological tests.
De briefing and a friendly
reconciliation was offered.
Results-
With few exceptions subjects believed the
experiment and when asked about the shocks
the modal answer was they must have been
“extremely painful”
Many subjects showed nervousness and tension
“subjects sweat, tremble, bite their lips, groan
and dig fingernails into flesh”
Some had full blown uncontrollable seizures!
Key Findings:
•Over half of the subjects (26/40) went all the
way with the shocks
•Only 9 stopped at intense shock 300volts
The sheer strength of obedient tendency even
though we are taught as children not to hurt
another person, the experimenter never used
physical force, and they wouldn’t lose the money.
The intense tension and physical conditions such
as sweating of the subject.

80. Why did they obey?
•The location at a prestigious uni provided sense of authority
•Subjects assume experimenter know what he is doing
•Subjects assume the learner has volunteered
•Subject feels under obligation and doesn’t want to disrupt study
•The sense of obligation is reinforced as he is being paid
•It is a novel situation so subject doesn’t know how to behave
•Subject assumes the pain is temporary
•Since the learner has participated up to level 20 they assume they can carry on
•The subject is torn between meeting demands of subject and expriementer
•The subject has little time to resolve this conflict
•The conflict is between two deeply ingrained tendencies: Do not harm another human
and obey those who are authority figures
Situational vs Dispositional
Circumstance changes behaviour vs Personality affects behaviour

81. Tyranny and Terror
Hitler is an infamous tyrant
causing mass genocide.
The September 11th 2001
attacks on the USA was the
biggest terror attack in
media history, in one day it
took away the safety from
the USA and created a one
day war.
Social Identity theory -
Henri Tajfel states that the social
groups and categories we belong to
are an important part of our self-concept.
This means people will
often interact with other people as a
representative of their social group.
Sometimes acting as an individual
and sometimes as a group member.
Social groups do not exist in
isolation, but in a social context
some groups have more power or
prestige. Once a social
categorisation of a group has been
made, next is social comparison to
attach a status.

82. Stanford Prison
Zimbardo used 24 subjects of normal mental health and ability who were mainly white
middle class.
He recruited an ex convict for advice and took on the role of a warden. The subjects were
randomly assigned guards or prisoners. They were given no expectations or instructions on
how to behave. The guards were told to keep control of the prisoners but warned not to use
physical aggression.
Both sets of subjects were given uniforms to promote feelings of anonymity. The guards
uniform was classic khaki trousers, shades and shirt to convey a sense of power whilst the
prisoners had to wear a smock with a number on and a cap made from stockings to make
them feel uncomfortable and inferior.
The role play soon took an ugly turn and following a revolt by prisoners the guards became
more extreme in their behaviour. The prisoners were subjected to humiliation and things
deteriorated quickly. Zimbardo brought the study to a close after 6 days instead of 14.
The main ethical implications and the results show that the role we are asked to play affects
our behaviour.
http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=sZwfNs1pqG0

83. Reicher and Haslam
BBC Prison study

84. Introduction
The impacts of Zimardo’s study was the ethical issues meaning many post
experiments have been limited to a lab.
Social Identity theory can be predicted to have “Permeability” – group
members believe that it is possible to move out of a group they will not
categorise themselves as a member.
Aim
The aim was to create an institution that resembled a hierarchical
structure such as school or prison. A study which would enable the
evaluation of group inequalities in terms of power and status.
It was not a replica of Zimbardo’s but set up to investigate the
issues raised.
The main predictions were
•Dominant group members will identify with their group
•Surbordinate group members will only identify with their group
and will challenge inequalities if groups are seen as impermeable
and insecure.

85. Method
•Study conducted in December 2001
•The bbc’s role was to create a prison environment, film and
prepare the study for broadcast
•Designed for 10 days
•Not reality TV as not for entertainment
•Experimental design as interventions were introduced and it is
a case study as the behaviour of only one group was assessed
Ethics:
Study was monitored throughout by ethics committee
Px signed consent form
Participants:
•Male
•Recruited through national newspapers
•15 px underwent psychometric tests
•Diversity of age, ethnicity and social class
•15 divided into 5 groups of 3 people matched as close as poss
•From each group 1 was randomly assigned “guard”
•1 prisoner was not involved at the beginning of study

86. Procedure
•Prisoners were allocated to 3 person cells, seperated from guards by a lockable
mesh fence
•Video and audio recording were throughout prison
•Dependent Variables were measured however not every day such as clinical
(depression) Social (social identification) and Organisational (compliance with
rules)
•Guards were briefed before study told they were in charge for smooth running
of prison and respect the rights of prisoners
•Guards were allowed to lock cells, and use punishments or rewards
•Guards had better living conditions
•There were 3 planned interventions
•Permeability – expectation of movement between groups, prisoners were told
guards were selected by reliability and that if they could show this they could get
promoted. One prisoner was promoted
•Legitimacy – After 3 days px were told there actually no differences between
guards and prisoners but it would be impractical to re-asign. This meant the
group division was not legitimate
•Cognitive alternatives – on day 4 prisoner 10 was to be introduced. Chosen
because of background as trade union official and therefore was thought he
could negotiate and organise action or revolt.

87. Results
Phase 1 – Rejecting inequality
Social Identification –
Measured every day on a rating
such as (I feel strong ties with
prisoners/guards)
Observation used to assess
Prisoners showed little group
identification until the groups
became impermeable after the
promotion
They started to discuss how they
could work together to improve
conditions.
Guards did not identify with their
group
Security of intergroup relations –
Low group identification between guards led
to ineffective leadership. This meant the
prisoners did not regard them as legitimate.
This meant there was no need for the second
intervention of Legitimacy.
Prisoner 10 joined on day 5 and established a
negotiating structure.
Further measures of prisoners –
1. Willingness to comply with authority
2. Willingness to engage in actions to make the
prison system work (measures of 1 and 2
declined when prisoner 10 started work
against the guards regime)
3. Self-efficacy (persons belief in own ability)
4. Depression, the unity of prisoners lead to
decline in depression scores
Combined Impact-
On the evening of day 6 prisoners
broke out of cells and occupied the
guards quarters

88. Phase 2 – Embracing inequality
The participants met with experimenters to draw
up terms of a new commune. Within a day this
new social structure was in crisis because two ex
prisoners violated rules.
A new group of one ex guard and 3 ex prisoners
created a plan for a harsher hierarchy. The
supporters of the new commune were passive
because they may have not wanted to show their
support on tv.
However after debriefing they said they liked the
idea of a stronger social order.
Over the course of the study prisoners and guards
showed increase right wing authoritarianism. A
new plan meant a re-assignment of px roles.
Prisoners and guards scores were similar near the
end.
The new regime was not implemented due to
ethical issues and the existing regime was not
working so the experiment was closed on day 8.

89. Revelations
Role of television-
The px could have
been play acting
because of the
camera’s or
reluctant to be
controlling guards
Personality-
Because of a change in
authoritarianism
personality cant explain the
events.
Dominance only occurred
in group identity not
personality.
This shows the emphasis
on support and
interdependence between
individuals and groups.
Social identification shifts
with context. Also
extreme behaviours can
be restrained. One
business man was
reluctant to be a brutal
guard meaning behaviur
can be caused by past and
future contexts.
The study
points at
situational
behaviour
Shared social
identity lead to
support and
positive metality

90. Conclusions
1. The results support Zimbardo that tyranny
can only be understood by looking at group
processes
2. The results contradict that group processes
are toxic i.e anti-social behaviour but rather
can be positive
3. The results show it is the breakdown of
groups that can cause tyranny
4. The study shows it is possible to run ethical
studies into social processes

91. Bystander Effect
Kitty Genovese drove
home from her job
at 3:15am when she
got out Winston
Moseley followed
her and stabbed her.
Her neighbours
heard her cries and
one shouted at
Winston who drove
away. Kitty went to
her home and five
minutes later
Winston came to her
house robbed, raped
and murdered her.
38 individuals
observed or heard
the attack but only a
few called the police.
The bystander effect is a
phenomenon where
people are less likely to
help someone when there
are others present. There
are two theories:
Pluralistic ignorance:
In an emergency you may
look for other peoples
responses, if they look calm
you think it is not an
emergency. They do the
same so you all do nothing
because none of you are
doing anything
Diffusion of
responsibility:
You think someone
else will take care
of it, however they
think you or
someone else will.
No one does
anything

92. Piliavin Subway Samaritan

93. Aim
The aims were:
1. Type of victim –
People who seem to have
inflicted their affliction on
themselves are less likely to
receive help. Piliavin wanted
to see if people were less
likely to help a drunk man or
an ill man.
2. Race of Victim
Piliavin wanted to see if the
race affected the level of help
they received. The study was
conducted in a time when
racial disputes were not
entirely solved in america.
3. Impact of modelling (model
behaviour)
People are more likely to help
if they have seen someone
else help, would a model
4. Group size
To see if increased group size
led to decreased helping

94. Method
Participants:
4,500 men and women
Unaware of their involvement
Travelling the 8th Avenue
subway in New York
Slightly more whites than
blacks
Approx 43 people in a carriage
8.5 people in “critical area”
Took place between 11am and
3pm over a two month
period.
The four victims were aged
26-35, one was black 3 white.
All were male and dressed
identically
On each trial a team of four General studies
students boarded the train sepately.
•There were 4 different teams
•2 girls acted as observers and took seats
outside the critical area
•The male model and the Victim remained
standing
•After 70 seconds the victim staggered
forwards and collapsed, he remained on his
back staring at the ceiling
•The start point 59th street and the end
point 125th street had 7 ½ minutes in
between
•If no one helped when they reached the
end point the model would help the victim
up

95. On 38 trials the
victim was drunk
and 65 trials the
victim was sober.
1. The drunk
condition the
victim smelled of
alcohol and
carried a bottle
wrapped in a
paper bag
2. The cane
condition the
victim appeared
sober and had a
black cane
The white models
were aged between
24-29. There were
three possibilites:
•No model: the
model didn’t help
•Early model:
helped after 70
seconds
•Late model: helped
after 150 seconds
•The point was to
see if the model
affected the
behaviour of
passengers
Measures-
On each trial one observer noted
•Race, sex, location of every
person in the critical area
•Total number of persons in the
carriage
•Total number who helped
•Race, sex location of those who
helped
The second observer noted
•Race, sex and location of
everyone in adjacent area
•Time when first help was offered
Both observers noted any
comments made by passengers
and tried to elicit comments from
the passenger next to them

96. Results
Amount of help offered:
Piliavin reported that the
cane victim received
spontaneous help 95% of the
time whilst the drunk victim
received 50%
1. On 49/81 trials the victim
was helped by two or
more
2. On 21 out of 103 trials 34
people left the critical
area when the victim
collapsed
Time taken to help:
Help was slower in the
drunk condition
Only 17% of drunk
victims were helped
before the model
stepped in whereas 83%
of the cane were helped
with no intervention
The mean time for cane
was 5 seconds and the
mean for drunk was 109
seconds
90% of the helpers were males
Black victims received less help
less quickly and in the drunk
condition there was a slight
same race effect.
Some comments were “you
feel so bad when you don’t
know what to do” and “its for
men to help him”
Group size:
The more passengers in the
proximity the more likely help
was to be given. Contradicting
earlier studies by Darley and
Latanes “diffusion of
responsibility theory”

97. Conclusions
Piliavins response to peoples reasons for
behavious in emergency situations:
1. Observation of an emergency creates a sense
of arousal
2. Arousal is interpreted differently in different
situations e.g fear
3. Arousal is heightened by a) the more one
empathises with the victim b) the closer one
is to the emergency c)the longer the
emergency continues
4. The arousal can be reduced by a)helping
directly b)getting help c) leaving the scene d)
rejecting the victim as underserving
Helping Not helping
Reward Praise Continuatio
n of other
activities
Cost Effort
Embarrass
ment
Harm
Self blame
disapproval
of others
•People who are drunk are less likely
to receive help
•Men are more likely to help
•Tendency for same race effect
•Group size did not mean less help

98. Ethics
Ethical Guidelines for psychology:
1. Consent
2. Deception
3. Debriefing
4. Withdrawal from the study
5. Confidentiality
6. Protection of participants
7. Observational research,
without consent is unethical
8. Giving advice , the psychologist
must be qualified to give that
advice
9. Colleagues, they must take
action if another psychologist
breaches these
Many studies involve some ethical
problems however these are often
deemed okay because of the
consequence and outcome of the
study being revolutionary or
improving someone's life despite for
example deception.
The social approach:
It looks for explanations of behaviour
in a social community. There are things
such as “mob psychology” which when
people are in a crowd they lose their
individual morals and will do
aggressive or unusual things due to
being in that mass situation.

99. Individual Differences
This approach tries to see the
differences between people
and looks as abnormalities
rather than conformed
behaviour.
They are concerned with
personality and how it can
change depending on
situation. Measuring
personality can be done with
psychometric tests however
all personality tests have to
be interpreted and carried
out by someone whose own
personality will effect the
way they perceive the results.
Many people have multiple
identities depending on
situation and how they feel
about something. We all have
many traits.
Online personalities are
interesting as people often feel
immortal and indespensdible
behind a computer, acting and
saying things they could never
in real life. You have the ability
to control who you are and
what you’re like

100. Rosenhan Starters
Schizophrenia has positive
symptoms (those that are
additional to normal behaviour)
and negative symptoms (those
that are a reduction in normal
behaviour). Diagnosis is often
done with self reports and
observations. There is no
biological test for it so it is a
difficult disease to diagnose.
Hallucinations:
Drugs – people have hallucinations
when they take LSD, often these are
described as illuminating and widening
your iagination however they can give
feelings of anxiety and fear.
The danger of these drugs is what you
can do on them and if you get
Hallucinogen persisting perception
disorder (HPPD) where even when the
drug is gone you still hallucinate.
Hearing voices – most people
experience this at some point however
sometimes it can be disconcerting and
last all day. Hearing voices is often
associated with religion and the voice
of god as well as the voice of satan.

101. Rosenhan – Sane in Insane places

102. Aim
Conceptions of normal and
abnormality are not universal. If a
psuedopatient was categorized as
insane then the diagnosis points at
being determined by situation and
environment rather than the patient.
Study 1-
To see if sane individuals who presented
themselves to a psychiatric hospital
could be diagnosed as insane.
Study 2 –
To see if the tendency towards
diagnosing the sane as insane could be
reversed
Study 3-
To investigate patient – staff contact
Ethnocentrism is the bias to which
we see things from our point of view
and those who think like us.

103. Study 1
Method:
Pseudopatients were 5 men and 3 women of
various occupations and ages. Rosenhan was
one of the pseudopatients himself.
Setting
12 different hospitals were used, located in 5
states across America, they represented old,
modern, poorly staffed, well staffed and one
was private.
Procedure –
Each patient called a hospital and got an
appointment, on arrival they said they had
been hearing voices which had the words
“hollow” “empty” and “thud”. These were used
as they provided an existential crisis (who am
i?) not associated with scizophrenia.
Each patient desrcibed their own lives
and none were abnormal, however
names were changed because of the
label of schizophrenia can effect later
life.
The patients were admitted to wards
where they acted no abnormal
behaviour, although they were slightly
nervous for being found out, for being on
a ward with insane people and for being
admitted so quickly.
The patients scretly didn’t take their
medication, however they followed ward
routine, nurses said they were co-operative,
friendly and showed no
abnormalities. The patients did not know
when they would get out and it was up
to them to get out by their own devices.

104. Results
All were admitted and bar one
were diagnosed with
schizophrenia. Each was
eventually discharged with a label
of “schizophrenia in remission”.
This diagnosis shows the stickiness
of the label once you’re diagnosed
with schizophrenia it doesn’t leave
you.
Hospitalisation varied from 7 to 52
days with an average of 19 days.
Explanation:
The failure to detect sanity could not be
due to
1. The quality of hospitals
2. The time available to observe them
(they were in for a reasonable time)
3. Their behaviour (many real patients
detected their sanity and said
“You’re not crazy, you’re a
journalist”
Doctors may have diagnosed them
because they are more inclined
towards a “type 2 “ error as it is
clearly more dangerous to diagnose
an insane person as sane.
Type 1 error – diagnosing a
sick person as healthy
Type 2 error – diagnosing a
healthy person as sick

105. Study 2
Method:
The staff in one psychiatric hospital
were informed of the results of the
first study and told that at some time
during the next three months one of
more pseudopatients would try to
be admitted. Each member of staff
were asked to rate patients who
sought admission on a scale of 1
(high confidence the patient was a
pseudopatient) to 10.
Results:
Over three months 193 patients were
admitted none of them were actually
psuedopatients.
•41 were judged to be pseudopatients
•23 were suspected by at least one
psychiatrist
•19 were suspected by a psychiatrist
and one other staff member
The hospital were now making more
type 1 errors to avoid making type 2
errors “one thing is certain, any
diagnosis process that lends itself so
readily to massive errors is not very
reliable”
The actual participants were
the doctors and nurses, the
psuedopatients were
confederates.

106. Study 3
Method –
In 4 of the hospitals
pseudopatients approached
staff and asked “Pardon Me,
could you tell me when I will be
elifible for grounds privileges?”
basically when am I going to be
discharged. The psuedopatient
did this very normally.
Results –
The most common response was
a brief reply and made no eye
contact. Only 4% of psychiatrists
stopped and only 0.5% of staff
stopped. 2% in each group
actually chatted.
In contrast as a control, a young
lady approached staff on the
Stanford Uni campus and asked
them 6 questions. All of the staff
membered stopped and answered
all questions. The avoidance of
contact between staff and patient is
to depersonalise the patients.

107. Discussion
The results show the effect
of a label on someone and
our perception of them.
Once a person is labelled as
abnormal all data is
interpreted in that light.
Labels are self-fulfilling for
psychiatrists and patients,
there is an overlap of
insane and sane.
Experience inside the ward:
People think you cannot recover
from a mental illness, for example
the remission label. There was
very limited contact between staff
and patients.
Powerlessness and
depersonalisation:
the staff treated patients with
little respect by beating and
swearing at them. The treatment
is depersonalising and creates a
sense of powerlessness.
Conditions were personal privacy
was minimal, no doors on toilets,
patients are seen as invisible.
It asks the question
how many are
misdiagnosed? And
can the
environment lead
to socialisation and
mortification.
Our perception and fear of the mentally
ill causes ambivalence which leads to
avoidance. The use of drugs convinces
staff treatment is being conducted so
they keep away. The hierarchichal
structure of the hospital means those in
charge have little to do with patients.

108. Thigpen and Cleckley Starters
Multiple Personality Disorder
Condition characterised by having at least one
alter personality which is usually involuntary
and independent. It is different to
schizophrenia as schizophrenics often can’t
test reality whereas MPD patients have no
difficulty testing reality. MPD is commonly
thought to be a response to extremely
traumatic situations which there is no escape,
if the px goes away In their own head then
they can remove themselves from the pain.
Symptoms
•PX has at least two distinct
personalities with own ways of
thinking
•At least two of these personalities
assume control of the px behaviour
•Px extensive inability to remember
personal information
•Not caused by substance abuse
Dissociation
Almost as if you go into automatic
pilot mode, you almost watch
yourself do something even though
you are doing it. We can use
dissociation to deal with stressful
events and use It as a coping
strategy.
Types of dissociation:
•Amnesia – a loss of memory or
personal info
•Depersonalisation – out of body
experiences, feeling your body isn’t
real
•Drealisation – things around you
appear unreal
•Identity confusion – a sense of
confusion as to who you are
•Identity alteration – refers to
dramatic shift in your identity that
changes your behaviour

109. Hypnotism
Hypnotism includes –
1. Intense concentration
2. Extreme relaxation
3. High suggestibility
It can be used for entertainment, therapy
or personal development.
Some therapists use hypnotism to uncover
repressed memories such as child
abuse. Repressed memory theory is
the theory that many disorders are the
consequence of repressed memories,
these cannot be recalled without
hypnotism or a therapist. This can be
controversial as is the therapist helping
them uncover or create memories.
Hypnosis could be argued is an extreme
example of social conformity as the
person responds to what they think if
expected of them.
Demonic possessions –
The px has “demons” inside
them causing their strange
behaviour and the only way to
rid them of this is an exorcism
This is commonly carried out
at American mass religious
ceremonies.

110. Thigpen and Cleckley – Multiple
Personality Disorder 1954
Aim – To record the case history of a
patient with multiple personalities

111. Patient(s)
Eve White –
25 year old married woman.
Described as “matter-of-fact,
truthful and consistently sober”
She was referred to Dr Thigpen
due to blinding headaches and
blackouts. The case was relatively
normal until White couldn’t recall
a recent trip. So hypnotism was
used to clear this up.
Eve Black –
EW had transformed from a
conventional figure to an
attractive woman. She was
childish, care free, playful and
egocentric.
The letter –
The letter from Eve was recognised by
her handwriting however the last
paragraph had different handwriting and
was playful. She denied ever sending the
letter yet she remembered starting it. She
became agitated and then a strange look
came over her face, she then looked up
and said “Hi there, Doc!”

112. Eve Blacks History
When EB was out EW was completely oblivious and had no recollection of what she did. She had
had two separate identities since childhood. However EB could recall some of what EW did and
EB regarded EW stress over her marriage as trivial.
EB often lied and said she used to come out when they were children to play pranks however
EW provided indirect evidence as she could remember being punished for things she couldn’t
remember doing. EW parents and husband also supported this.
At age 6, EB wandered into the woods to play with some other children and said she enjoyed
playing and being able to leave or detach and leave EW to be punished for her actions. EW
husband said he had found she had bought lots of new clothes and hidden them away and
shouted at her however EB confessed to being the culprit.
EB denied any association with EW husband and child who she despised and had never made
herself known to her parents or husband so they had no idea however they were aware of
subtle changes in her which they called her strange habits as EB could imitate EW voice and
gestures to disguise.
EB confessed to marrying another man whilst EW was working away from home and EB had
come out and gone to a bar and married a man she had just met whom she lived with
unbeknownst to EW.
EW’s hostility towards her marriage and roles made her feel guilty and activated repression
which meant she could remove the conflict from her conscious awareness. EB allows a discharge
of hostility, EB role is to embody all EW angry feelings allowing EW to continue a loving and
happy persona

113. Method
Thigpen and Cleckley spent
approx 100 hours over 14 months
interviewing both Eves and
collecting material about their
behaviour. Initially in order to
interview EB, EW had to be
hypnotised but it soon became
possible to just ask to speak to EB
and she came out. This could be
an ethical issue as it complicated
Eve Whites life as Eve Black could
pop out more easily.
Therapy –
It was difficult to proceed with therapy as EB
refused so they struck a deal to allow her more
time out if she particiapted.
EB said she had created the imaginary voices EW
heard and could cause the blackouts and wipe
EW’s memory if she tried hard.
The aim of the therapy was to try to reintergrate
the personalities, they tried to call out both
personalities at once but EW suffered a bad
headache.
During the course of therapy EW left her hsuband
and her daughter went to live with her parents.
EW’s headaches desisted and she was able to
achieve some stability, EB seldom came out
although still went on dates with bad company
again unbeknownst to EW.
Psychological tests such as
psychometrics and personality
tests and IQ tests were
conducted on both Eves. EW
showed signs of repression
whilst EB showed signs of
regression and wanting to
return to an earlier stage in life

114. After 8 months of therapy EW
headaches came back, EB denied any
role in this and said she was
experiencing blackouts too. During
hypnosis EW dropped her head and
when she returned she looked
confused and asked who are you. This
new personality was called Jane and
was more bold than EW but not
difficult like EB, a somewhat
compromise of the two.
Thigpen and Cleckley realised
their role in the creation of
Jane, they faced a dilemma of
how much to encourage her to
take over the two Eves, they
believed that ultimately the
choice lay with the patient.
EEG test –
A study was done on all three
personalities brain waves,
tenseness was most prominent in
EB then EW then Jane. EW and
Jane has similar alpha rhythm yet
EB was on the borderline
between normal and abnormally
fast. Abnormally fast is
sometimes associated with
psychopathic personality.

115. The three Personalities
Jane was aware of everything the other
two did but could not fully access their
memories. Jane could report when EB
was lying. She felt free from EW’s role
as mother although she felt compassion
for the child. Jane gradually took over
more and more from EW although
could not displace EB and could only
come through EW.
EW admitted the best solution was for
Jane to take over her role as mother as
she had been unsuccessful although
Jane was reluctant to come between a
distressed mother and her child.
Jane’s Letter about EW –
She felt great awe for EW as EW saved the life
of a little boy, she had darted in front of a car
to save him and he became her baby, she
continued to walk down the street with him
and Jane had to come out to prevent a
possible kidnap arrest and find the mother.

116. Conclusions
Possible explanations –
•She was a skilled actress though this is unlikely as it was a
longitudinal study
•She could have been schizophrenic although other
symptoms were not apparent
Jane seemed to be a fusion of the two personalities
however different from both.
Thigpen and Cleckley thought it appropriate to state each
Eve and Jane were separate personalities although the
physical evidence such as the EEG was not impressive and
a handwriting professional determined although the letters
had different styles they had been written by the same
person
Psychological tests –
EW scored 110 on IQ
test
EB scored 104 on IQ
EW on drawings of
human figures scored
repressive whilst EB
scored regressive.
On Rorschach ink blot
test EW was rigid and
hostile whilst EB had a
hysterical tendency.

117. Explanations of addiction
1. Neurotransmitters
2. Genetics – some genes have been
shown to appear more in addictive
persons
3. Behaviours
Components to gambling
1. The stake – how much is put on
2. The predictability of the event – how
predictable the outcome is
3. The odds – ratio of two possible
outcomes
Griffiths components of addictive behaviours –
1. Salience - how important the behaviour or addiction becomes to a
person, even when they’re not doing it they are thinking about it
2. Euphoria – the rush or buzz from it
3. Tolerance – increasing amount of activity to achieve the same effect
4. Withdrawal symptoms – the amount of unwanted symptoms when
the addiction is reduced
5. Conflict – addictive people often develop conflicts with people
around them due to their addiction and this causes internal
conflicts and social msiery
6. Relapse – the chance of a relapse after being clean is very high

118. Griffiths – the role of cognitive bias
and skill in fruit machine gambling
IV – RGS and NRGS
Dv – The win/play etc rate and type of
verbalisations

119. Introduction
Normative decision theory –
The theory claims it can predict
the decisions a gambler will make
however this is unsupported as
often the decisions are irrational.
Heuristics and Biases –
Heuristic is a strategy to work
something out or set of rules. The
problems for gamblers is that the
heuristics they choose produce
distortions as they are selected on
the wrong occasion. The 6
distortions are..
All of these heuristics >
lead to bias cognitive processing
i.e distortions in a persons
thinking
1. Illusion of control – behaviours which give the
illusion you are in control such as choosing the
fruit machine makes you think there is an element
of control
2. Flexible attributions – self-esteem is given by
attributing winning to their own skill and losing to
some external factor they can spin losing into a
“near win” to keep going
3. Representativeness – the belief that random
events have a pattern and that you must be more
likely to win if you have lost a lot
4. Availability bias – you hear people have won so
you think it is common
5. Illusory correlations – people believe that some
events are correlated with success such as rolling
a dice softly for low numbers
6. Fixation on absolute frequency – measuring
success in terms of absolute rather than how
often

120. Aim – to consider whether Aim
gamblers are actually more skilful
or whether their behaviour is
characterised by cognitive
distortions.
To compare the behaviour or
non-regular and regular fruit
machine gamblers.
Hypothesis –
1. There would be no difference
between regs and non-regs
on the 7 behavioural
dependent measures used to
asses skill
2. Regs would produce more
irrational verbalisations
assessed by the thinking
aloud method
3. Regs would be more skill
orientated
Dependent Variable
(outcome)
Definition
Total Plays Total number of plays during
play session
Total time Total time of play in minutes
during one play session
Play rate Total number of plays per
minute during play session
End stake Total winnings in number of
10p’s after play session over
Wins Total number of wins in a
play session
Win rate (time) Total number of minutes
between each win
Win rate (play) Total number of plays
between each win

121. Method Participants –
60 px with a mean age of
23.4
Half were regs (29 males
and 1 female) and half
were non-regs (15 males
and 15 females)
RGS gambled at least once
a week and NRGS gambled
at the most once a month.
Participants were recruited
through poster ads and a
snowball sample. The
gender imbalance couldn’t
be rectified as fruit
machine gambling is
dominated by males.
Design –
Each px was given £3 and asked to play on
“fruitskill” and play 60 gambles to hopefully
win back the £3.
Ecological validity was considered:
•Setting – the experiment was a field
experiment because behaviour could have
been altered if in lab conditions
•Money – using someone elses money may
reduce the excitement and risk which is part of
gambling however allowing px to keep their
winnings tried to compensate for this lack of
ecological validity.

122. Thinking aloud
Half the px in each group were randomly
assigned to the thinking aloud condition. It is
probably the best method of assessing
cognitive processes and what a person is
thinking.
An additional hypothesis was - thinking aloud
px would take longer to complete task than
non thinking aloud px
The following instructions were given to the
thinking aloud group –
•Say everything that goes through your mind
•Keep talking as continuously as poss
•Speak in complete sentences unless
unavoidable
•Do not try to justify your thoughts
These were tape recorded and later transcribed

123. Results
Significant findings –
•RGS made more percentage
verbalisations in cat 1 and 21
•NRGS made significantly more
percentage verbalisations in cat 14, 15,
31
•RGS referred to frustration and mind
going blank
•RGS produced more irrational
verbalisations
•Many verbalisations involved
personification of the machine
Behavioural data –
RGS had a significantly
higher play rate (8
gambles per minute
opposed to 6 per
minute)
RGS who thought aloud
had a significantly lower
win rate, the number of
gambles between each
win was lower than
NRGS
Verbalisations –
To analyse this quantitative data
content analysis was used. A
coding system of 31 utterance
categorisations such as irrational
(the fruit machine likes me) and
rational (reference to luck, it’s my
day today)
Then each statement made by px
was categorised into the coding
system . Totals for RGS and NRGS
were calculated.

124. Cat Irrational verbalisations NRGS RGS
1 Personification of machine 1.14 7.54
2 Explaining loses 0.41 3.12
4 Swearing at machine 0.08 0.60
Rational Verbalisations
7 Reference to winning 6.77 9.79
14 Questions relating to confusion 13.24 1.56
15 Statements of confusion 4.81 1.72
16 Reference to skill 1.47 5.34
17 Humour 0.89 0.41
21 Reference to number system 1.45 9.49
25 Hoping and needing a symbol 0.77 3.28
28 Reference to luck 0.69 0.52
31 Other utterances unrelated 25.53 11.73

125. Skill results
Post-experimental semi-structured interviews
asked:
•Is there any skill involved? Most NRGS said
mostly chance whereas most RGS said equal
chance and skill
•How skilful do you are compared to the
average person? NRGS viewed themselves as
below av but RGS said above average
•What skill is involved in playing fruit
machines? RGS said knowledge of not playing
when it had just paid out, and knowing when
it will pay out
It is interesting to note that of the 14 RGS who
broke even after 60 gambles, 10 continued to
play and then lost everything whereas only 2
out of the 7 NRGS continued after breaking
even.

126. Conclusion
Behavioural data showed that there was no
difference between RGS and NRGS supporting
hypothesis 1 and the verbalisations showed more
irrational by the RGS.
RGS were more skill orientated.
Many RGS exclaimed their mind had gone blank and
stopped speaking for 30 seconds whereas NRGS
rarely did. It is thought the RGS go into auto pilot
mode when playing or that they go into escape
mode and use gambling to escape a troubled
present so are not thinking constantly.
The main differences were RGS being skill orientated
and making irrational verbalisations and
personifications, this study can be used to
rehabilitate gamblers using the thinking aloud
method by confronting them with their cognitive
bias and irrational thoughts.