This document provides an introduction to osteology, the study of bones. It discusses the classification, macro and microstructure, properties, and functions of bones. Bones are composed of both organic and inorganic materials and come in four types - long, short, flat, and irregular. Cortical bone forms the hard outer layer of bones and has concentric osteons, while cancellous bone is spongy and found at the ends of long bones. Bones provide structure, movement, protection and store minerals in the body.

1. Introduction toIntroduction to
OsteologyOsteology

2. 1. Classify the different types of bones of the human body
2. Describe the macro and microstructure of bones
3. Describe the biomechanical properties of cancellous and
cortical bones
4. Discuss the differences between cancellous and cortical bones
5. Describe the orientation of the human body and bones
6. Describe the functions of bones
Learning Outcomes

3. OSTEOLOGY
Study of Bones
is
Bone is a kind of mineralized connective tissue
The skeletal system is composed of the bones, cartilages, and joints that form the internal framework

4. Functions of boneFunctions of bone
• Support (Provide a framework for the human body)
• Movement (Provide leverage for movements)
• Protection (Protection of organs)
• Mineral storage
• Blood cell formation and energy storage
• Energy metabolism

5. Bone TissueBone Tissue
• Bone tissue consists of cells separated by an
extracellular matrix. Unlike other connective tissues,
bone has both organic and inorganic components.
• The organic components are the cells, fibers, and
ground substance.
• The inorganic components are the mineral salts that
invade the bony matrix, making bone tissue hard.
• Bone does contains a small amount of tissue fluid,
although bone contains less water than other
connective tissues.

6. Bone Tissue –Bone Tissue –
Extracellular matrixExtracellular matrix
• The organic components of bone tissue account for
35% of the tissue mass.
o These organic substances, particularly collagen, contribute the flexibility
and tensile strength that allow bone to resist stretching and twisting
• Balance of bone tissue, 65% by mass, consists of
inorganic hydroxyapatites, or mineral salts, primarily
calcium phosphate.
o These mineral salts are present as tiny crystals that lie in and around the
collagen fibrils in the extracellular matrix.
o The crystals pack tightly, providing bone with its exceptional hardness,
which enables it to resist compression.
o These mineral salts also explain how bones can endure for hundreds of
millions of years, providing information on the sizes, shapes, lifestyles, and
even some of the diseases (for example, arthritis) of ancient vertebrates.

7. • Three types of cells in bone tissue produce or maintain
the tissue: osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, and osteocytes
• Osteogenic cells are stem cells that differentiate into
bone-forming osteoblasts
• Osteoblasts are cells that actively produce and secrete
the organic components of the bone matrix: the ground
substance and the collagen fibers. This bone matrix
secreted by osteoblasts is called osteoid. Within a week,
inorganic calcium salts crystallize within the osteoid.
Once osteoblasts are completely surrounded by bone
matrix and are no longer producing new osteoid, they
are called osteocytes.
• Osteocytes function to keep the bone matrix healthy
Bone Tissue – CellsBone Tissue – Cells

8. • The cells responsible for the resorption of bone are
the fourth type of cell found within bone tissue,
osteoclasts.
• Osteoclasts are derived from a lineage of white
blood cells. These multinucleated cells break down
bone by secreting hydrochloric acid, which
dissolves the mineral component of the matrix, and
lysosomal enzymes, which digest the organic
components.

9. Classification of Bones
a. Long Bones
b. Short Bones
c. Flat Bones
d. Irregular Bones
According to shape

11. Structure of a typical long boneStructure of a typical long bone
• Diaphysis and
Epiphyses
• Blood Vessels
• The Medullary
Cavity
• Membranes
• Diaphysis and Epiphyses:
o The tubular diaphysis, or shaft, forms the long axis of
a long bone
o Epiphyses are the bone ends. The joint surface of
each epiphysis is covered with a thin layer of hyaline
cartilage called the articular cartilage.
o Between the diaphysis and each epiphysis of an
adult long bone is an epiphyseal line. This line is a
remnant of the epiphyseal plate, a disc of hyaline
cartilage that grows during childhood to lengthen
the bone.

12. • Blood Vessels - bones are well
vascularized.
o Between 3% and 11% of the blood in the body is in the
skeleton.
o The main vessels serving the diaphysis are a nutrient
artery and a nutrient vein.
o Together these run through a hole in the wall of the
diaphysis, the nutrient foramen. The nutrient artery runs
inward to supply the bone marrow and the spongy
bone.
o Branches then extend outward to supply the compact
bone.
o Several epiphyseal arteries and veins serve each
epiphysis in the same way.
• The Medullary Cavity
o The interior of all bones consists largely of spongy bone.
o The very center of the diaphysis of long bones contains
no bone tissue at all and is called the medullary cavity
or marrow cavity, filled with yellow bone marrow.
o The spaces between the trabeculae of spongy bone are
also filled with marrow.

13. • Membranes
o A connective tissue membrane covering entire surface of
bone except epiphysis called the periosteum.
o This periosteal membrane has two sublayers:
• a superficial layer of dense irregular connective tissue,
which resists tension placed on a bone during bending,
• deep layer that abuts the compact bone. This deep
layer is osteogenic, containing bone-depositing cells
(osteoblasts) and bonedestroying cells (osteoclasts).
• These cells remodel bone surfaces throughout our lives .
• The osteogenic cells of the deep layer of the
periosteum are indistinguishable from the fibroblasts
within this layer.
o The periosteum is richly supplied with nerves and blood
vessels, which is why broken bones are painful and bleed
profusely.
o The periosteum provides insertion points for tendons and
ligaments that attach to a bone. At these points, the
perforating fibers are exceptionally dense. Whereas
periosteum covers the external surface of bones, internal
bone surfaces are covered by a much thinner connective
tissue membrane called endosteum. Specifically,
endosteum covers the trabeculae of spongy bone, it also
lines the central canals of osteons. Like periosteum,
endosteum is osteogenic, containing both osteoblasts and
osteoclasts.

15. • Structure of Short,
Irregular, and Flat
Bones
o have much the same
composition as long bones:
periosteum-covered
compact bone externally
and endosteum-covered
spongy bone internally.
o these bones are not
cylindrical, they have no
diaphysis. They contain
bone marrow (between the
trabeculae of their spongy
bone), but no marrow cavity
is present
o A typical flat bone of the
skull.

16. Bone Design and Stress
•Bones are subjected to compression as
weight bears down on them or as muscles
pull on them.
•The loading usually is applied off center,
however, and threatens to bend the bone
• Bending compresses the bone on one
side and stretches it (subjects it to tension)
on the other.
•Both compression and tension are
greatest at the external bone surfaces.
•The spongy bone and marrow cavities
lighten the heavy skeleton and provide
room for the bone marrow.
•The surfaces of bones also reflect the
stresses that are applied to the bone. The
superficial surfaces have distinct bone
markings

17. Bone markingsBone markings

18. Internal macrostructure of long bone
Epiphysis: Cancellous bone
Diaphysis: Cortical bone/compact
bone
Medullary Cavity: bone marrow
for formation of red blood cell
Covering of the bone is periosteum
Perforation at the surface of the bone:
Foramen for blood vessels

19. Irregular Bones and short bones
Cancellous Bone
Outer layer is cortical
bone
Cancellous / Spongy bone

20. Microscopic structure ofMicroscopic structure of
compact bonecompact bone
Osteon, or Haversian system –
•Osteons are long, cylindrical structures oriented
parallel to the long axis of the bone and to the main
compression stresses.
•Functionally, osteons can be viewed as miniature
weight-bearing pillars.
•Structurally, an osteon is a group of concentric tubes
resembling the rings of a tree trunk in
•cross section.
•Each of the tubes is a lamella, a layer of bone matrix
in which the collagen fibers and mineral crystals align
and run in a single direction.

22. • In each osteon runs a canal called the central canal, or
Haversian canal lined by endoteum
• Central canal contains its own blood vessels, which supply
nutrients to the bone cells of the osteon, and its own nerve
fibers.
• Perforating canals, also called Volkmann’s canals, lie at right
angles to the central canals and connect the blood and
nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the central canals
and the marrow cavity.
• The mature bone cells, the osteocytes, are spider-shaped,
their bodies occupy small cavities in the solid matrix called
lacunae, and their “spider legs”occupy thin tubes called
canaliculi.
• These “little canals” run through the matrix, connecting
neighboring lacunae to one another and to the nearest
capillaries, such as those in the central canals.

23. • Lying between the osteons are
groups of incomplete lamellae
called interstitial
• These are simply the remains of
old osteons that have been cut
through by bone remodeling.
• Additionally, circumferential
lamellae occur in the external
and internal surfaces of the
layer of compact bone; each
of these lamellae extends
around the entire
circumference of diaphysis
• Functioning like an osteon but
on a much larger scale, the
circumferential lamellae
effectively resist twisting of the
entire long bone.

24. Macroscopic structure ofMacroscopic structure of
spongy bonespongy bone
• Each trabecula contains
several layers of lamellae and
osteocytes but is too small to
contain osteons or vessels of
its own. The osteocytes
receive their nutrients from
capillaries in the endosteum
surrounding the trabecula via
connections through the
canaliculi.

25. Orientation of Bones
Orientated in relation to the human body

26. Lateral
(directed away from midline
of the human body)
Superior / cranial
(direction upwards towards head)
Mid line
Inferior / caudal
(directed downawards towards
the legs)
Medial
(directed towards the midline
of the human body)

27. midline
Superior / cranial
(direction upwards towards head)
Lateral
(directed away from midline
of the human body)
Medial
(directed towards the midline
of the human body)
Inferior / caudal
(directed downawards towards
the legs)

28. Posterior
(directed towards the back of
the human body)
Anterior
(directed towards the front
part of the body)

29. S
M
S
L
Orientation of a bone
Anterior View

30. S
M
Orientation of a bone

31. Homework
1. Name all the bones of the body
2. Classify the bones

32. ReferencesReferences
• Drake RL., Vogl AW. & Mitchell AWM (2009)
Gray's Anatomy for Students: With STUDENT CONSULT Online Access
. Churchill Livingstone (2nd.edn)
• Levangie PK & Norkin C. (2005) Joint Structure and Function: A
comprehensive analysis (4th edn). FA Davis Co.
• Nordin M. & Frankel VH (2012) Basic Biomechanics of the
Musculoskeletal System (4th ed.) Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Palastanga N., Soames R. & Field D (2006) Anatomy and Human
Movement: Structure and Function (Physiotherapy Essentials.
Butterworth Heinnemann (5th edn.)
• Tortora GJ. & Derrickson B. (2011) Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology (13th edn.) . John Wiley and Sons.