This document summarizes the classification of bones based on shape, development, region, and structure. It discusses the different types of bones such as long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. It also describes the types of cartilage, classification of joints, and provides additional facts about bones.
A joint is an articulation between two bones in the body and are broadly classified by the tissue which connects the bones. The three main types of joints are: synovial, cartilaginous and fibrous.
synovial joint, definition of synovial joint, diarthrodial joints, components of synovial joint, types of synovial joints, hinge joint with examples, pivot joint with examples, condyloid joint with examples, saddle joint with examples, ball and socket joint with examples, gliding joint with examples, features of synovial joint, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, components of synovial membrane, meniscus, true and accessory ligament of synovial joint, bursae, blood supply of synovial joint, innervation of synovial joint
a brief ppt description about cartilage which may be usefull for teaching for first year mbbs, bds and paramedical students, hope it is helpfull to everyone
BONE – AN INTRODUCTION
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton.
There are around 270 to 300+ bones in Infants which gets reduced to 206 bones in adults.
Bones are dynamic structures that are undergoing constant change and remodelling in
response to the ever-changing environment.
Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells,
store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.
It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity.
The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in
the middle ear.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
Muscles is a contractile tissue which brings about movement.
Muscle cell responsible for our movement both visible and invisible, example walking, talking, bowel movement ,urination, breathing, heartbeats, the dilation and constriction of the pupils of our eyes and many other.
When we are still sitting or standing muscle cells keep us erect.
CONT...Muscles can be regarded as motors of the body.Muscles comprises about 40% to 50% (approximate) of body weight.There are approximate 650 muscles in body.Alternating contraction and relaxation of cells
A joint is an articulation between two bones in the body and are broadly classified by the tissue which connects the bones. The three main types of joints are: synovial, cartilaginous and fibrous.
synovial joint, definition of synovial joint, diarthrodial joints, components of synovial joint, types of synovial joints, hinge joint with examples, pivot joint with examples, condyloid joint with examples, saddle joint with examples, ball and socket joint with examples, gliding joint with examples, features of synovial joint, synovial membrane, synovial fluid, components of synovial membrane, meniscus, true and accessory ligament of synovial joint, bursae, blood supply of synovial joint, innervation of synovial joint
a brief ppt description about cartilage which may be usefull for teaching for first year mbbs, bds and paramedical students, hope it is helpfull to everyone
BONE – AN INTRODUCTION
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton.
There are around 270 to 300+ bones in Infants which gets reduced to 206 bones in adults.
Bones are dynamic structures that are undergoing constant change and remodelling in
response to the ever-changing environment.
Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells,
store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.
It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity.
The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in
the middle ear.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
Muscles is a contractile tissue which brings about movement.
Muscle cell responsible for our movement both visible and invisible, example walking, talking, bowel movement ,urination, breathing, heartbeats, the dilation and constriction of the pupils of our eyes and many other.
When we are still sitting or standing muscle cells keep us erect.
CONT...Muscles can be regarded as motors of the body.Muscles comprises about 40% to 50% (approximate) of body weight.There are approximate 650 muscles in body.Alternating contraction and relaxation of cells
A detail account of Bones, their histological features, classification, composition, Formation, blood and nerve supply, functions, plus some interesting facts about bones.
Urine Acidification is quite a dry and lengthy topic, it's quite hard to keep a track on it's every extrusion and intrusion so here I broke the process in steps. Hope it becomes easy for you :)
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
4. OUTLINE
B. Types on the basis of development:
1. Membranous bones,
2. Cartilaginous bones,
3. Membro-cartilaginous bones.
C. Types on the basis of region:
1. Bones of Axial skeleton,
2. Bones of Appendicular skeleton.
D. Types on the basis of structure:
1. According to Macroscopic approach:
a. Compact bone,
b. Spongy bone.
5. 2. According to Microscopic approach:
a. Fibrous bone,
b. Lamellar bone.
c. Woven bone.
d. Dentine and Cement.
6. •Bones:
Bone is the one-third connective tissue,
forming the main supporting framework of the
body. The in-organic Calcium salts make it hard
and rigid.
•Osteology:
The scientific study of bones is known
as Osteology.
INTRODUCTION
7. •Functions Of Bones:
a. Support, Protection & Movement:
1. Gives shape to the body.
2. Supports body weight.
3. Protects sensitive parts of the body.
b. Blood Cell Formation:
The red bone marrow found in the
connective
tissue of certain bones is the site of blood cell
production.
8. c. In-organic Salt Storage:
Functions as a storage depot for many of
the body
needs. For example: (Calcium, Potassium, Sodium
etc).
9. •Cartilage:
Cartilage is a connective tissue
composed of cells & fibers embedded in
Nucleopolysachharide.
There are three main types of cartilages
which are mentioned below:
1. Hyaline Cartilage: Covers the atricular
Surface of synovial membrane.
2. Fibro-Cartilage: Present in the Epiglottis
etc.
3. Elastic Cartilage: Present in the ear
Pinna etc.
10. •Functional Classification of
Joints:
The point in human skeleton where two bones join together
is called a joint.
There are three types of joints which are mentioned below:
1. Synarthroses:
Immoveable Joints.
Example: Suture
Fig. Example of
Synarthroses.
11. 2. Amphiarthrosis:
Slightly/Partially moveable joints.
Example: Intervertebral disc.
.
3. Diarthrosis:
Freely moveable joints.
Example: Synovial membrane
Fig. Example of Amphiarthrosis.
Fig. Example of Diarthrosis.
12. Types Of Bones:
A. Types On The Basis Of Shape:
There are 6 basic types which are
mentioned below:
1. Long Bones.
2. Short Bones.
3. Flat Bones.
4. Irregular Bones.
5. Pneumatic Bones.
6. Sesamoid Bones.
13. 1. Long Bones:
These bones typically have an elongated shaft
and
two expanded ends one on either side of the shaft. The shaft
is known as diaphysis and the ends are called epiphyses.
Examples: Humerus, femur etc.
Fig. Femur, Long Bone.
14. 2. Short Bones:
These bones are short in posture and can be of any
shape.
Examples: The carpal and tarsal bones.
Fig. Carpal Bones, Short Bones. Fig. Tarsal Bones, Short Bones.
15. 3. Flat Bones:
These bones are flat in
appearance.
Examples: Scapula, Ribs,
Sternum etc.
Fig. Scapula, Flat Bone.
Fig. Sternum & ribs, Flat bones.
16. 4. Irregular Bones:
These bones are
completely irregular in shape.
Examples: vertebrae, hip
bone and bones in the
base of skull.
Fig. Hip bone, Irregular bone.
Fig. 1st
& 2nd
Cervical of vertebra,
Irregular bone.
17. 5. Pneumatic Bones:
Pneumatic bones can also be categorized
under the irregular
bones.The characteristic difference is the presenceof
large air spaces in
these bones which make them light in weight and thus
they form the major
portion of skull
Examples: Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxila etc.
Fig. Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxila , Pnematic Bones.
18. 6.Sesamoid Bones:
These are in the form of
nodules embedded in
tendons and joint capsules.
Examples: Patella, Pisiform,
Fabella etc.
Fig. Pisiform, Sesamoid Bone.
Fig. Patella, Sesamoid Bone.
19. B. On The Basis Of
Development:
There are three basic types which are mentioned below:
1. Membranous bones,
2. Cartilaginous bones,
3. Membro-cartilaginous bones.
20. 1. Membranous bones:
These bones ossify in membrane from
mesenchymal
condensations.
Examples: Bones of the vault of skull
and Facial bones.
Fig. Bones of Skull & Face,
Membranous bones.
21. 2. Cartilaginous Bones:
They ossify in cartilage and thus
derived from performed
cartilaginous models.
Examples: Thoracic cage etc.
Fig. Thoracic cage, Cartilaginous bones.
22. 3. Membrano-cartilaginous Bones:
They ossify partly in membrane and partly in
cartilage.
Examples: Clavicle, Mandible, Temporal etc
Fig. Mandible,
Membrano-cartilaginous
bone.
Fig. Clavicle, Membrano-
Cartilaginous bone.
Fig. Temporal,
Membrano-Cartilaginous
bone.
23. C. On The Basis Of Region:
It is divided into two types, they are:
1. Axial Skeleton.
2. Appendicular Skeleton.
24. 1. Bones Of Axial Skeleton:
These bones forms the axial
skeleton of the human body.
Examples: Bones of skull,
Thoracic cage & Vertebral Column
Fig. Bones of Axial Skeleton.
25. 2.Bones Of Appendicular Skeleton:
These bones forms the Appendicular skeleton of
the human
Body.
Examples: bones of the limbs and girdles of
limbs.
Fig. Upper limb, Clavicle & Scapula
Girdle bones of Appendicular Skeleton.
Fig. Lower limb, Pelvic Girdle
bones of Appendicular Skeleton.
26. D. On The Basis Of
Structure:
They are sub divided into two parts, which are:
1. Macroscopic Approach.
2. Microscopic Approach.
27. 1. Macroscopic Approach:
a. Compact Bone:
Compact bone is dense in texture but is
extremely
porus.
Example: In the cortex of long bones.
Fig. Macroscopic structure of the
cortex of femur(Long Bone).
28. b. Cancellous OR Spongy Bone:
The part of bone where there is more
empty space and
less bone tissue.
Example: The inner part of Long
Bones.
Fig. The Macroscopic Structure of the inner part of
Femur(Long Bone).
29. a. Fibrous Bone:
These have more fibers in them. Also known as
immature bones.
Example: Found only in fetus, sockets of
alveolar bones and
sutures of the skull.
2. Microscopic Approach:
Fig. Microscopic structure of Fetus of Human.
30. b. Lamellar Bone:
Most of the mature human bones,
whether compact or Cancellous, are composed
of thin plates of bony tissue called lamellae.
Example: Formed on the periosteal
surface of diaphysis.
Fig. Microscopic structure of Lamellar arranged in piles in a cancellous bone.
31. c. Woven Bone:
Occurs initially in fetal
bones. In adults woven bone is created
after fractures.
Example: Seen in fetal
bone, fracture repair and in cancer
of bone.
Fig. Microscopic structure of Woven bone.
32. d. Cementum and Dentine:
Cementum is a specialized calcified
substance covering the
root of a tooth. It hardens to act as an adhesive glue.
Dentine is
one of the hard tissues of the teeth which
constitutes most of its bulk.
Example: Occur in teeth.
Fig. Dentine of a tooth. Fig. The Cementum of a human tooth.
33. Do you know?
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage.
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened.
• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body
mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton
• The largest bone in the human skeleton is Femur.
• Babies are born with about 300 bones.
• Almost a third of bones of babies eventually fuse together
to
form the 206-bone skeleton of an adult.
34. • Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage.
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened.
• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton
• The largest bone in the human skeleton is Femur.
• Babies are born with about 300 bones.
• Almost a third of bones of babies eventually fuse together
to
form the 206-bone skeleton of an adult.
Do you know?
35. • Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage.
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened.
• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton
• The largest bone in the human skeleton is Femur.
• Babies are born with about 300 bones.
• Almost a third of bones of babies eventually fuse together to
form the 206-bone skeleton of an adult.
Do you know?
36. Do you know?
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage.
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened.
• 206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton
• The largest bone in the human skeleton is Femur.
• Babies are born with about 300 bones.
• Almost a third of bones of babies eventually fuse together to
form the 206-bone skeleton of an adult.