Archaeology involves formulating research questions and using scientific methods like surveys, excavations, and analysis of artifacts, features, and ecofacts to understand past human cultures and behaviors. Key aspects of archaeological work include developing relative and absolute chronologies to date sites, using qualitative and quantitative analysis of materials, and interpreting patterns in the data to evaluate theories about how humans interacted with each other and their environments. The goal is to extract meaningful information from archaeological remains to learn about past societies and human life.

1. ARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION TO METHOD,
THEORY AND PRACTICE

2. WHAT ARCHAEOLOGY IS NOT
 Paleontology
 Grave Robbing
 Treasure Hunting
 Paranormal
 Curses and Magic

3. “THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHOD”
1. Formulate a Research Question
2. Identify a Suitable Site/Region
3. Select an Appropriate Research Method
4. Collect Data
5. Analyze Data
6. Reassess Research Question

4. RESEARCH DESIGN
 Formal archaeology start with a Research Question (i.e., testable
Hypothesis)
 Research interests are influenced by the broader research in the social
or hard sciences.
 Archaeology shifts in focus from hard sciences focus to humanities
focus.
 1950-1980 “Processual” Archaeology: emphasizes scientific method in
archaeology. Aims to create unifying theories of cultural action.
 1980-present “Post-Processual” Archaeology: emphasizes symbolic
processes and complexity of human interaction. Aims to explore the
variability of human interaction.
 2000-present “Behavioral” and “Evolutionary” Archaeology: suggests
that natural selection operates on human behavior creating varied but
scientifically predictable reactions to natural and cultural stimuli.
 Research Buzzwords of the last decade: Feasting and Commensality,
Ideology and Hegemony, Agency, Materiality, Evolutionary Psychology,
Public Archaeology, Behavioral or Cognitive Processes, Ecological
Determinism.

5. IDENTIFYING ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
 Primary means of
identifying
archaeological
sites is SURVEY.
 Several different
forms of survey
using different
methodology.
 Beyond site
identification,
archeological
surveys are used
to assess regional
settlement
patterns.
Aerial photograph of Tell Megiddo in Israel

6. TRADITIONAL SURFACE SURVEY
 Ground Survey consists of physically traversing the
landscape identifying sites.
 Two types of survey: Unsystematic and Systematic.
 Unsystematic: The collection or recording of sites
encountered in traversing the landscape. Biased by the
archaeologist’s sampling.
 Systematic: Survey conducted using rigorous controls.
Creating a grid system or a series of equally spaced
transects. Ensures the entire survey area is analyzed
uniformly.
 The primary type of archaeological site in the Near East is
the TELL. Tells are the result of the construction of
successive layers of occupation at a specific location.
 Other sites include: Roads, Wells, Watchtowers,
Campsites, Irrigation Ditches, Quarries, Mines,
Agricultural fields, Bridges, etc.

7. AERIAL OR SATELLITE RECONNAISSANCE
 Use of aerial photography or satellite imagery to
identify past activity on the landscape.

8. REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES
 Electro-Magnetic Resistance: measurement
of electrical conductivity in topsoil to map
archaeological sites. Stone and mudbrick
walls and other features conduct electricity
differently than surrounding soils.
 Ground Penetrating Radar: Waves of radio
energy are transmitted into the topsoil and
the echo is measured to determine changes
in soil composition and depth.

9. EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES:SAMPLING
 Non-probabilistic sampling: used when
archaeologists already are familiar with the
landscape or are interested in a particular site.
 Probabilistic sampling: used when a
representative sample is required to test
hypothesis or the site is poorly understood.
Several types of probabilistic sampling.
 Random sampling: area of excavation chosen at
random from grid layout of site.
 Systematic Sampling: area of excavation
chosen at equally spaced intervals in grid.

10. EXCAVATION SAMPLING AT KENAN TEPE, TURKEY

11. EXCAVATION: EXCAVATION TECHNIQUE
 Horizontal
Excavation –
the removal of
large
horizontal
exposures to
reveal the
extent of
occupation
during a single
level at a site.
 Primary goal is
recovery of
architecture

12. EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES: WHEELER-KENYON
METHOD
 Excavation of
smaller trenches
(ca 5 x 5 m)
separated by
baulks to control for
stratigraphy.
 Primary goal is a
overview of the
depth of occupation
in association with
other trenches at
site.

13. EXCAVATION TECHNIQUES: STEP TRENCH
 Large open
excavation that
narrows as it
descends.
 Goal is to
discover the
complete extent
of occupation at
the site.
 Limited in terms
of information
provided other
than date.

14. EXCAVATION: RECORDING AND RECOVERY
 Archaeological
artifacts are
unintelligible without
a knowledge of
stratigraphy and
spatial context.
 In order to control
finds are recovered
by level, called a
LOCUS.
 Visible finds are
recorded on sight
and placed in bags
for each Locus.

15. EXCAVATION: RECORDING AND RECOVERY
 Soil is then removed
and screened to
recover small artifacts

16. EXCAVATION: RECORDING AND RECOVERY
 To recover botanical
samples, archaeologist
sometimes employ
Flotation.

17. ARCHAEOLOGICAL DATA: WHAT CAN IT TELL US?
 The Date(s) of the
site
 The Size of the site
 Social Structure
 Food Procurement
 Labor Organization
 Gender Roles
 Burial Practices
 Technology
 Trade Patterns
 Architecture
 Dietary Practices
 Cultural Aesthetics
 Religious Activity

18. CHRONOLOGY
 The most important aspect of archaeology is
correctly assigning a date to archaeological
materials.
 Two ways archaeologists ascertain the date of
archaeological materials:
 Relative Chronology: The association of
archaeological materials with other materials at
both the site and regional scale.
 Absolute Chronology: The assessment of a
specific date through scientific or textual
methods.

19. RELATIVE CHRONOLOGY
 Stratigraphy – the study and interpretation of the layering
of the earth. The general rule is that layers that are deeper
are older than those above it.
 Seriation – the study of the change through time of specific
artifact classes. Either Stylistic of Frequency Based.

20. SAMARRAN PERIOD POTTERY (6400-5800 BCE)

21. HALAF PERIOD POTTERY (6500-5000 BCE)

22. UBAID PERIOD POTTERY (6000-4000 BCE)

23. URUK PERIOD POTTERY (4000–3000BCE)

24. STYLISTIC SERIATION
 The previous 4 slides show changes in pottery in
Mesopotamia over 3000 years.
 A few obvious trends emerge.
 Beginning in the Halaf Period the fabrics are of better quality.
 Painting styles – Samarran and Halaf pottery are bi-chrome
painted (two colors) with more intricate motifs, Ubaid pottery is
a black paint on white background and Uruk pottery is not
painted at all.
 Shapes – In general the shapes of vessels becomes more
simplified and easier to produce quickly.
 Uruk period pottery is made differently with the introduction of
the fast-wheel and mold made Beveled rim bowls.
 By finding these pottery styles on a site in greater
Mesopotamia we can assign that site a relative date.

25. ABSOLUTE CHRONOLOGY
 The scientific analysis of
chronology, several means
of dating based on
applicability of
archaeological materials.
 Most Common:
Radiocarbon (C-14) Dating
- Half-life 5730 years
 Dendrochronology (Tree
Ring Dating)
 Uranium Series Dating
 Potassium-Argon Dating
 Thermo-luminescence

26. WRITING
 Texts can provide a great
source of information when
discovered.
 Dating – often texts describe
events in which a date is given.
 Power Structure – Texts often
describe the workings of the
upper levels of the social
hierarchy.
 Record Keeping – Ancient texts
often functioned as receipts
recording economic
transactions
 Religious Rituals – texts often
record the steps taken in
religious ceremonies or the
powers of specific deities.

27. ARTIFACTS
 Artifacts are portable items used in antiquity.
 Analysis of artifact classes form the core of
archaeological knowledge.
 Ceramics
 Lithics
 Ground Stone
 Metals
 Animal Bone
 Botanical Remains
 Texts
 Personal Adornment
 Human Bone

28. FEATURES
 Features are large man-
made non-portable
structures or facilities.
 Houses
 Temples
 Palaces
 Trash Pits
 Ovens
 Kilns/Furnaces
 Hearths
 Storage Bins

29. ANALYSIS: QUALITATIVE TECHNIQUES
 Analysis that describes
artifacts in terms that
cannot be measured.
Color, texture, shape or
form, etc.
 Most common is the
creation of
TYPOLOGIES.
 Typology is the
arrangement of artifacts
in chronological or
developmental sequence.
 Studies of decoration or
form of artifacts, texts,
art, or architecture are
often qualitative.

30. ANALYSIS: QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUES
 Analysis that records
the measurable
attributes of artifacts
mathematically.
 Application of
advanced statistics to
artifact assemblages.
 Often applied to make
meaning of qualitative
attributes (i.e.
percentage of pottery
vessels with a
particular design)

31. INTERPRETATION OF DATA: PATTERNING
 The application of both
qualitative and
quantitative analysis
allow archaeologists to
recognize patterns in the
archaeological record.
 Patterns of distribution
or use are key to
coherent analysis.
 Dissimilar patterns point
to anomalies in
distribution or use and
are more difficult to
interpret.

32. INTERPRETATION OF DATA: THEORY
 Once data has been collected
and analyzed archaeologists
return to their working
hypothesis or research
question.
 Here data is used to support or
disprove a broad range of
general theories of human
interaction ranging from
evolutionary psychology to
Agency-based practice theory.
 The nature of archaeological
data prevents the creation of
truths or laws and more data
always fills in gaps in
archaeological knowledge.

33. THE REAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHOD
1. Formulate research
question over beers with
fellow archaeologists.
2. Survey. Then drink
3. Select appropriate
research method over
beers with fellow
archaeologists.
4. Excavate. Then drink.
5. Analyze data while
drinking.
6. Reassess research
question over beers with
fellow archaeologists.