The emergence and develoment of archaeology as a science to study history.

1. Submitted by-
SWATI CHANDRA
HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGY IN
GLOBAL CONTEXT

2. INTRODUCTION
 History of archaeology is the story of humankinds
continuing quest to better understand our place in the
world.
 Biblical and other religious texts earlier used to
understand this until they were proved to be insufficient
as evidence of human antiquity began to be found.
 New explanations developed with this and by the late 19
centaury archaeology was recognized as a discipline with
theories borrowed from other disciplines .
 The project focuses on the origin, growth and evolution
of archaeology as a discipline.

3. ORIGIN OF ARCHAEOLOGY
 Exact origin as a disciplined study is clouded but excavation of
monuments and collection of antiquities taking place since a
thousand years.
 Treasure hunting common among ancient people.
 Human curiosities led to the study of human past , 4 major
curiosities:
1. To know about the immediate ancestors eg french and the gauls.
2. Interest in non functional aspects of present landscape.
3. Objects that turn up by daily activities like gardening.
4. Natural curiosity as to how man and his culture came into being.
These were the major factors that led to the origin of prehistoric
archaeology.

4. THE CLASSICAL WORLD AND ANTIQUITIES
 First people to take interest in origin of humankind and the earth were the
GREEKS.
-Their contact with tribes, savages stimulated an interets in prehistory and
ethnography.
- HESOID: classified history of civilisation into 5 stages gold, silver, bronze, age of
epic heroes & iron age.
- HERODOTUS: described accurately the material culture of scyntians in accounts
of his travel.
• ROMANS were accurate ethnographers.
- TACITUS: wrote Germania
- JULIUS CEASAR: accurate description of Britons and gauls in De Bello Gallico.
- LUCRATICUS: proposed stages in the evolution of man in his De Rerum Natura.
• These were just general ideas of development of civilisation hence cannot be
considered as pure archaeology.

5. HERODOTUS & HIS MAP

6.  Earliest record of excavation and search for antiquity goes
back to NABONIDUS, last king of Babylon.
- excavated the temple of Shamash at Sippar
- constructed a museum in Babylon to preserve his findings.
• Ancient world developed historians and ethnographers but
not archaeologists.
• The origins and the idea of antiquities developed in the
ancient world but development towards archaeology began in
the middle ages with the rise of antiquarianism.

7. RISE OF ANTIQUARIANISM
 New wave of interest with the Renaissance movement in the 15th & 16th
centaury, collector’s zeal began to manifest itself in Florence .
 Distinguished men started the habit of collection of antiquities, and
furnishing their villas with ancient art and treasure, also sponsored
private excavations to add to their collection.
 In Italy, with the rise of humanism DILETTANTIS , those who are delighted
in the arts came into light. They were considered the forerunners of
archaeologists.
 In England ,in 16th &17th centaury , trend of ‘antiquarianism’ emerged,
visiting & studying monuments was the new interest now.
 Topographical studies began, BRITANIA detailed study of historical
monuments by John Leland (king’s antiquary) & Camden was published
in 1586.
 1572, society for preservation of monuments formed in England.
 17th centaury antiquarian studies flourished , Field archaeology began.

8. Society of dellitantis

9.  In the 18th centaury, several important developments took place which
laid the foundation of new approaches.
1. The discovery of Greece : scholars turned towards Greece , visited these
lands and excavated after preparing notes & drawings.
2. The romantic movement: scholars turned away from classics & began
glorifying ancient Britons & druids.
3. Development of natural sciences: new impetus in development of
archaeology, societies flourished & study of nature became stylish.
• Big step in archaeology with excavation of Pompeii and Herculaneum .
• ARCHAEOLOGIA , first journal of the society of antiquary of London
published in 1770.
• Antiquarianism and its later developments in 18th centaury paved way
for a more systematic and scientific study of past

10. Discovery of Greece , excavation at Athena

11. Excavations at Pompeii

12. CONTRIBUTION OF GEOLOGY
 Geology played a major role in development of archaeology in the 19th
centaury which revolved around 3 important ideas.
1. Development of Geological studies: Discovery & demonstration of
principles of stratigraphy by WILLIAM SMITH .
2. Evolution of early man: Man’s prehistoric past proved by geological
strata , eradicating the previously accepted biblical account of creation
in 4004 b.c
3. Development of 3 age system: C.J.Thomson established the 3 age system
in 1836 for classification of artifacts . Later classifiaction on the basis of
stratigraphy was formed by Worsac , namely stone, bronze & irons
• These 3 developments created a new environment of thought in which
archaeology as a systematic study could flourish

13. BIRTH OF ARCHAEOLOGY
 Various events can be credited for the birth of systematic study in archaeology.
 Thomas Jefferson, conducted a supervised and systematic excavation of a
native American mound in 1784, his methods of investigation were ahead of
his time.
 J.J winckelmann , first applied empirical categories of style on a large ,
systematic basis . Focussed on detailed empirical examination of artifact.
 William Flinders Petrie, first to scientifically investigate the great pyramids ,
developed the concept of seriation which helped in dating .
 Henrich Schliemann, first to use stratigraphy in the near east . Believed in the
possibility of excavation directed towards solving problem rather than just
recovering an object.
 Division of ages as lower , upper & middle search for prehistoric man began
which gave rise to pre historical archaeology.
 With the advent of industrial revolution a climate disposed to scientific studies
appeared which led to the development of various techniques and methods.

14. Excavation by Thomas Jefferson , 1784

15. Napoleon during his Egypt visit.

16. DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES AND METHODS
 1850-1900, saw the beginning of systematic archaeological
technique of excavation , field survey , conservation and protection
of finds. This period known as birth of conscience
 In the first half of 19th centaury excavation were only concerned
with extraction of hidden objects , leaving the site destroyed but
later a need for standard in techniques grew.
 Development in classical archaeology took place in 1870, under
this excavation was seen as a reconstruction of the lost whole,
recovering every succession of occupation.
 Another development was of detailed record of excavation .
 This period marked the beginning of the modern methods in
archaeology .

17. Flinders petrie (1852-1942) William Smith

18. DEVELOPMENT OF TECHNIQUES AND METHODS
 1900 Onwards
 Archaeological work developed into a well organised and
systematised discipline, a need for planninig and metod
developed in all aspects of archaeological work.
 Scientific study now involved the study of totality of
phenomena not just the study of techniques.
 Archaeologist were now concerned with not only a few sites
or objects but with all the evidence that can be obtained from
pottery to refuse pits.
 Archaeology is now hugely dependent on information from
specialists , as various discipline now constitute the study of
archaeology , eg botany for pollen analysis, zoology for flora &
fauna etc.

19. TECHNIQUES OF EXACAVATION
 New techniques in stratigraphical examination and
excavation of perished and semi perished materials were
developed.
 Excavations at ur were model of the modern technique of
archaeology, from extraction and preservation to
interpretation and publication.
 Development of complex and detailed excavation techniques
has meant the growth of excavation staff which now include
assistants, architects, epigraphers artist etc.
 Mortimer wheeler, developed the grid system of excavation
which was highly disciplined approach to excavate. Focused
on strict strarigraphical approach and prompt publication of
excavations.

20. Excavation in grid pattern

21. TECHNIQUES OF DISCOVERY
 Apart from development in excavation , techniques in
archaeological discovery and field survey also developed.
 Field archaeology was the greatest contributing to the
development of discoveries.
 New techniques like Resistivity survey, echo sounding, bosing
phosphate determination, probe survey etc
 The greatest achievement was of air photography. In 1906
first archaeological photo was taken of the Stonehenge. OGS
Crawford is given the credit for Ariel photography.

22. SCIENCE AND ARCHAEOLOGY
 Science has contributed archaeology with various new ways to study
the human past .
 Most important scientific achievement was that of radio carbon dating
in 1946 by William Libby which brought a revolution in archaeology.
 Other developments were of Dendrochoronlogy , geochronology for
counting clay verves, pollen analysis by Lemart Von Post.
 Various analytical techniques developed like Geophysical method ,
Electron micro probing ,Electrical resistivity measurements etc
 For dating , potassium argon, archeomagnetism , thermoluminescene
,C14 etc.
 Other development for field archaeology were remote sensing, satellite
imagery, Air photography , surface remote sensing , GPR etc.

23. Under water archaeology mapping appratus

24. NEW ARCHAEOLOGY
 In the last 20th century a new approach in archaeological study
began with the advent of computers & scientific techniques namely
NEW ARCHAEOLOGY.
 The ultimate goal was to formulate general theories to explain and
predict major transformations, cultural process and human
behaviour using scientific techniques and methodology.
 Chief proponents were Lewis Binford , David Clarke, K.V. Flannery
etc.
 It used various new approaches which includes deductive -
nomological , hypothetic- deductive model, system theory
approach etc.
 This approach also received various criticism for dehumanizing
archaeology..

25. CONCLUSION
• Archaeology has come a long way from its humble beginning
from treasure hunting to a professional discipline having
multidisciplinary approach.
• Now it is concerned not only with finding artifacts but aims at
preserving and reconstructing the human past with its cultural
process.
• Has developed various disciplines itself like marine archaeology
, feminist archaeology , salvage archaeology etc.
• In future archaeology is going to be highly digitised and
technical with introduction of new technology but the human
approach would still be the accurate to determine the past as
archaeology is the study of human past and its reconstruction.