1) Various approaches are used to interpret evidence from artifacts in order to understand how they were made and used, including archaeological analysis, scientific analysis, ethnographic analogy, and experimental archaeology.
2) Stone tools were made through processes like knapping and were used as tools for hunting, butchery, and other tasks. Organic materials like bone, antler, wood, and plant fibers were also used to make tools and structures, and their forms and functions have been studied through replication experiments.
3) The evolution of stone tool technologies progressed from simple Oldowan tools in the Lower Paleolithic to more advanced blade-making in the Upper Paleolithic, showing increasing complexity over time.
The document summarizes key developments from the Paleolithic period including the emergence of stone tool technology, the movement of humans from caves to villages, and early forms of shelter, art, and symbolic communication. Stone tools allowed humans to cut, shape, and work wood, enabling the creation of projectile weapons, shelters, and other technologies. Cave paintings provided early expressions of beliefs and perspectives on life. Archaeological artifacts and remains like the Skara Brae houses in Orkney, Scotland provide clues about Paleolithic life and how societies were organized.
The Mesolithic Age occurred between 10,000-8,000 BCE. During this time, humans moved out of caves and began building huts. They invented new stone tools like bows and arrows for hunting and boats for fishing. Humans also began domesticating wolves, which eventually became dogs. Societies grew larger and people started making pottery and jewelry. However, humans still maintained a nomadic lifestyle, hunting and gathering food and then migrating to new areas once resources were depleted.
This document provides information about the Neolithic village of Skara Brae located in Scotland. It is considered Europe's most complete Neolithic village dating back to around 3100 BC. The village was uncovered in 1850 after a severe coastal storm and provides insight into the daily lives of people who lived during the Neolithic period in northern Europe.
Origin and Distribution of Megalithic Tradition in IndiaDebajit Ghosh
This document provides an overview of the origin and distribution of megalithic traditions in India. It discusses various theories that have been proposed about the origin of megalithism, including indigenous origins in South India as well as influences from maritime cultures. The document also examines traditions and legends connected to megalithic sites. Finally, it describes the major regions in India where megalithic sites are found, including South India, Vidarbha in Maharashtra, North and Central India, and Northeast India. It provides examples of different types of megalithic structures and discusses the cultural material found at these sites.
This document discusses various archaeological dating techniques used to determine the age of artifacts and sites, including relative dating methods like stratigraphy, seriation, fluorine analysis, and pollen analysis. It also explains absolute dating techniques such as radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, thermoluminescence, and dendrochronology. Relative techniques provide order of events but not specific dates, while absolute methods can determine calendar years through scientific analysis in a lab. Each technique has strengths and limitations for different archaeological materials and contexts.
The document summarizes the Stone Age periods in India, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic eras. It notes that the earliest humans in India date back around 1.38 million years ago based on archaeological sites. During the Paleolithic period, humans began using stone tools. The Mesolithic period saw the development of microlithic tools. Finally, the Neolithic period marked the beginning of settled agricultural societies in India around 6,000 BCE, with early villages forming and domestication of crops and animals.
The document summarizes key developments from the Paleolithic period including the emergence of stone tool technology, the movement of humans from caves to villages, and early forms of shelter, art, and symbolic communication. Stone tools allowed humans to cut, shape, and work wood, enabling the creation of projectile weapons, shelters, and other technologies. Cave paintings provided early expressions of beliefs and perspectives on life. Archaeological artifacts and remains like the Skara Brae houses in Orkney, Scotland provide clues about Paleolithic life and how societies were organized.
The Mesolithic Age occurred between 10,000-8,000 BCE. During this time, humans moved out of caves and began building huts. They invented new stone tools like bows and arrows for hunting and boats for fishing. Humans also began domesticating wolves, which eventually became dogs. Societies grew larger and people started making pottery and jewelry. However, humans still maintained a nomadic lifestyle, hunting and gathering food and then migrating to new areas once resources were depleted.
This document provides information about the Neolithic village of Skara Brae located in Scotland. It is considered Europe's most complete Neolithic village dating back to around 3100 BC. The village was uncovered in 1850 after a severe coastal storm and provides insight into the daily lives of people who lived during the Neolithic period in northern Europe.
Origin and Distribution of Megalithic Tradition in IndiaDebajit Ghosh
This document provides an overview of the origin and distribution of megalithic traditions in India. It discusses various theories that have been proposed about the origin of megalithism, including indigenous origins in South India as well as influences from maritime cultures. The document also examines traditions and legends connected to megalithic sites. Finally, it describes the major regions in India where megalithic sites are found, including South India, Vidarbha in Maharashtra, North and Central India, and Northeast India. It provides examples of different types of megalithic structures and discusses the cultural material found at these sites.
This document discusses various archaeological dating techniques used to determine the age of artifacts and sites, including relative dating methods like stratigraphy, seriation, fluorine analysis, and pollen analysis. It also explains absolute dating techniques such as radiocarbon dating, potassium-argon dating, thermoluminescence, and dendrochronology. Relative techniques provide order of events but not specific dates, while absolute methods can determine calendar years through scientific analysis in a lab. Each technique has strengths and limitations for different archaeological materials and contexts.
The document summarizes the Stone Age periods in India, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic eras. It notes that the earliest humans in India date back around 1.38 million years ago based on archaeological sites. During the Paleolithic period, humans began using stone tools. The Mesolithic period saw the development of microlithic tools. Finally, the Neolithic period marked the beginning of settled agricultural societies in India around 6,000 BCE, with early villages forming and domestication of crops and animals.
The document provides information about Paleolithic and Neolithic art and structures from different time periods and locations. It describes cave paintings from the Paleolithic period dated around 15,000-13,000 BCE found in the Lascaux Caves in France. It also details the megalithic structure of Stonehenge built from around 3,000-1,400 BCE on Salisbury Plain in England during the Neolithic period using the post and lintel construction technique. Additionally, it mentions the moai statues carved from volcanic rock between 1,000-1,100 AD on Easter Island, Chile.
Farming revolutionized human civilization by allowing for stable food supplies through crop planting and animal domestication, enabling people to settle permanently in communities rather than following nomadic lifestyles as hunters and gatherers. This transition from the Old Stone Age to the New Stone Age established early towns and villages through agriculture and led to new developments like specialized work, defense cooperation, and long-distance trade between distant places and peoples.
The Neolithic period was part of the Stone Age, a time period in which hominids primarily used stones as tools and weapons. Dating from approximately two million years ago to 3000 B.C., the Stone Age consisted of three time periods..
The slide was made as part of academic tasks.
Prehistoric art includes megaliths, stone figurines, and cave paintings from cultures without written languages. Several forms of prehistoric art are described, including Venus figurines depicting female forms from 24,000-22,000 BCE found across Europe. Megalithic structures like dolmens consisting of large upright stones supporting capstones and menhirs of single standing stones are discussed. Some of the earliest known cave paintings dating back over 17,000 years are highlighted from the Lascaux, Chauvet, and Altamira caves in France and Spain depicting animals like bison, deer, and horses.
The document discusses the Paleolithic Age from 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago, covering the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic eras. It examines the climatic conditions and ways of living during this period, including food and nutrition, shelter, tools, religion, beliefs, art, and music. The Paleolithic Age marked early human evolution and the development of stone tool technology.
The document discusses the three periods of the Stone Age:
1. The Paleolithic period was the earliest period when the first stone tools were invented. Humans during this time were hunter-gatherers who did not practice agriculture.
2. During the Mesolithic period, tools like bows and arrows were developed to help hunt deer.
3. The Neolithic period marked the beginning of farming.
This document discusses megalithic sites from South India's prehistoric past. Megaliths were large stone burial monuments used for important tribal figures dating back to around the 5th century BC. They have been found around river valleys, trade routes, and strategic locations. Different types of megalithic structures have been discovered, including dolmens which are single-chamber tombs made of large capstones supported by other standing stones, and menhirs which are single large upright standing stones that may stand alone or in groups. Artifacts found at these sites provide insights into the Iron Age culture and way of life of these early tribes.
The document provides an overview of the pre-historic period in India, which it divides into the Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and Neolithic Age based on stone tool technology. It describes key developments in each period, including that Palaeolithic humans used quartzite tools and lived as hunter-gatherers, while Mesolithic humans began using bone tools and domesticated dogs. The document also discusses archaeological evidence found across India dating to the pre-historic period, including stone tools, cave paintings, and burial sites.
The Harappan civilization arose along the Indus River valley around 2700 BC and lasted until 1700 BC. Major cities included Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro which had populations over 35,000. Cities featured planned neighborhoods and streets laid out in grids, along with sophisticated drainage systems. The civilization engaged in extensive trade and had a standardized system of weights, measures, and brick sizes. Though stratified, there is no evidence of warfare or rulers claiming victories. The decline of the civilization may have been due to shifting river patterns and flooding, as well as changes in trade routes.
This Presentation is prepared for Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
Method of Excavations and Explorations.pptxVirag Sontakke
This Presentation is prepared for the Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
The document summarizes the Stone Age period of human history. It was called the Stone Age because it was the period when early humans first started using stone tools, which helped them hunt and build shelter. Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three periods based on tool sophistication: the Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic Age (New Stone Age). During the Neolithic Age, humans transitioned to farming and domesticated animals like cows and sheep.
This document summarizes the key art and architectural features of the Mauryan Empire between 322-185 BCE. It discusses their five main types: palaces like those found at Pataliputra with remains of 80-pillared halls; rock-cut caves like the oldest surviving Barabar Caves near Gaya; stupas like the Great Stupa at Sanchi and Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath built by Ashoka to honor the Buddha's relics; Ashoka's pillars engraved with edicts scattered across North India; and rock edicts such as the one by Ashoka at Dhauli in Odisha expressing his conversion to Buddhism after conquering the area.
In the Neolithic Period, people in the Near East began developing agriculture, taming animals, and establishing villages as they transitioned to a farming way of life. This included gathering seeds and domesticating plants. Notable sites from this period included Jericho, considered the earliest walled city and town, and Catal Huyuk, which served as a center for trade and home to Neolithic farmer villages. Trade developed through bartering goods and the emergence of specialized artisans.
The paleolithic era and the neolithic eraashleyrollins
Paleolithic Era to Neolithic Era. Created for a sixth grade social studies classroom. Contains information about the transition from hunting and gathering to a more permanent and agricultural lifestyle.
Information from History Alive! Pictures from Wikipedia and Discovery Education.
This document provides an overview of geography, history, and the development of early civilizations. It summarizes that [1] geography studies how people interact with their environments, while history uses written evidence to understand the past. [2] The Stone Age occurred before writing and is divided into the Old Stone Age and New Stone Age. [3] During the Old Stone Age, early humans lived nomadic lifestyles as hunter-gatherers and left religious artifacts suggesting spiritual beliefs. The Neolithic Agricultural Revolution led to permanent settlements and domestication of plants and animals. Early civilizations exhibited complex social structures including cities, governments, religions, social classes, and writing systems.
Human evolution began around 5 million years ago with early human ancestors like Australopithecus afarensis in Africa. Homo habilis who lived around 2 million years ago were the first to make complex tools. Homo sapiens emerged around 200,000 years ago in Africa and spread across the world. Prehistoric human development involved progressing through the Stone Ages including the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods defined by their tool usage and subsistence strategies like hunting and gathering or agriculture. During the later Metal Ages of the Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages, humans transitioned to metal tools and the rise of early civilizations.
The Bronze Age lasted from around 2300 BC to 700 BC. During this time, bronze was widely used to make tools, weapons, and other implements as it was harder than previously used stone. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Cities without natural resources to obtain bronze were forced to trade with those that did have resources. The development of bronze tools and weapons advanced societies politically, economically, socially, and culturally. One influential Bronze Age invention was the chariot, a light two-wheeled vehicle drawn by horses that was used for transportation, hunting, and as a powerful military weapon.
Copy of SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY lesson 1.pptxLuisSalenga1
Ancient humans developed skills and technologies through science to help them survive, even during primitive times. Archeological excavation has uncovered evidence that settlements like Mohenjo-daro used tools and implements as early as 5000-3000 BC, during the Stone Age. Key periods in prehistoric tool development included the Oldowan, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian and microlithic traditions, before the emergence of copper, bronze and iron working eras between 5000 BC and 600 BC that marked major technological advances.
This document provides an overview of science and technology development during prehistoric times from the Stone Age to the Iron Age. It describes how early humans discovered tools like stone tools during different Stone Age periods (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the four fundamental stone tool traditions that developed. It then discusses the Oldowan, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian, microlithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age tool technologies and how tools evolved over time from basic stone tools to the use of copper, bronze and eventually iron.
The document provides information about Paleolithic and Neolithic art and structures from different time periods and locations. It describes cave paintings from the Paleolithic period dated around 15,000-13,000 BCE found in the Lascaux Caves in France. It also details the megalithic structure of Stonehenge built from around 3,000-1,400 BCE on Salisbury Plain in England during the Neolithic period using the post and lintel construction technique. Additionally, it mentions the moai statues carved from volcanic rock between 1,000-1,100 AD on Easter Island, Chile.
Farming revolutionized human civilization by allowing for stable food supplies through crop planting and animal domestication, enabling people to settle permanently in communities rather than following nomadic lifestyles as hunters and gatherers. This transition from the Old Stone Age to the New Stone Age established early towns and villages through agriculture and led to new developments like specialized work, defense cooperation, and long-distance trade between distant places and peoples.
The Neolithic period was part of the Stone Age, a time period in which hominids primarily used stones as tools and weapons. Dating from approximately two million years ago to 3000 B.C., the Stone Age consisted of three time periods..
The slide was made as part of academic tasks.
Prehistoric art includes megaliths, stone figurines, and cave paintings from cultures without written languages. Several forms of prehistoric art are described, including Venus figurines depicting female forms from 24,000-22,000 BCE found across Europe. Megalithic structures like dolmens consisting of large upright stones supporting capstones and menhirs of single standing stones are discussed. Some of the earliest known cave paintings dating back over 17,000 years are highlighted from the Lascaux, Chauvet, and Altamira caves in France and Spain depicting animals like bison, deer, and horses.
The document discusses the Paleolithic Age from 2.6 million to 10,000 years ago, covering the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic eras. It examines the climatic conditions and ways of living during this period, including food and nutrition, shelter, tools, religion, beliefs, art, and music. The Paleolithic Age marked early human evolution and the development of stone tool technology.
The document discusses the three periods of the Stone Age:
1. The Paleolithic period was the earliest period when the first stone tools were invented. Humans during this time were hunter-gatherers who did not practice agriculture.
2. During the Mesolithic period, tools like bows and arrows were developed to help hunt deer.
3. The Neolithic period marked the beginning of farming.
This document discusses megalithic sites from South India's prehistoric past. Megaliths were large stone burial monuments used for important tribal figures dating back to around the 5th century BC. They have been found around river valleys, trade routes, and strategic locations. Different types of megalithic structures have been discovered, including dolmens which are single-chamber tombs made of large capstones supported by other standing stones, and menhirs which are single large upright standing stones that may stand alone or in groups. Artifacts found at these sites provide insights into the Iron Age culture and way of life of these early tribes.
The document provides an overview of the pre-historic period in India, which it divides into the Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age, and Neolithic Age based on stone tool technology. It describes key developments in each period, including that Palaeolithic humans used quartzite tools and lived as hunter-gatherers, while Mesolithic humans began using bone tools and domesticated dogs. The document also discusses archaeological evidence found across India dating to the pre-historic period, including stone tools, cave paintings, and burial sites.
The Harappan civilization arose along the Indus River valley around 2700 BC and lasted until 1700 BC. Major cities included Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro which had populations over 35,000. Cities featured planned neighborhoods and streets laid out in grids, along with sophisticated drainage systems. The civilization engaged in extensive trade and had a standardized system of weights, measures, and brick sizes. Though stratified, there is no evidence of warfare or rulers claiming victories. The decline of the civilization may have been due to shifting river patterns and flooding, as well as changes in trade routes.
This Presentation is prepared for Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
Method of Excavations and Explorations.pptxVirag Sontakke
This Presentation is prepared for the Graduate Students. A presentation consisting of basic information regarding the topic. Students are advised to get more information from recommended books and articles. This presentation is only for students and purely for academic purposes.
The document summarizes the Stone Age period of human history. It was called the Stone Age because it was the period when early humans first started using stone tools, which helped them hunt and build shelter. Archaeologists divide the Stone Age into three periods based on tool sophistication: the Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age), Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic Age (New Stone Age). During the Neolithic Age, humans transitioned to farming and domesticated animals like cows and sheep.
This document summarizes the key art and architectural features of the Mauryan Empire between 322-185 BCE. It discusses their five main types: palaces like those found at Pataliputra with remains of 80-pillared halls; rock-cut caves like the oldest surviving Barabar Caves near Gaya; stupas like the Great Stupa at Sanchi and Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath built by Ashoka to honor the Buddha's relics; Ashoka's pillars engraved with edicts scattered across North India; and rock edicts such as the one by Ashoka at Dhauli in Odisha expressing his conversion to Buddhism after conquering the area.
In the Neolithic Period, people in the Near East began developing agriculture, taming animals, and establishing villages as they transitioned to a farming way of life. This included gathering seeds and domesticating plants. Notable sites from this period included Jericho, considered the earliest walled city and town, and Catal Huyuk, which served as a center for trade and home to Neolithic farmer villages. Trade developed through bartering goods and the emergence of specialized artisans.
The paleolithic era and the neolithic eraashleyrollins
Paleolithic Era to Neolithic Era. Created for a sixth grade social studies classroom. Contains information about the transition from hunting and gathering to a more permanent and agricultural lifestyle.
Information from History Alive! Pictures from Wikipedia and Discovery Education.
This document provides an overview of geography, history, and the development of early civilizations. It summarizes that [1] geography studies how people interact with their environments, while history uses written evidence to understand the past. [2] The Stone Age occurred before writing and is divided into the Old Stone Age and New Stone Age. [3] During the Old Stone Age, early humans lived nomadic lifestyles as hunter-gatherers and left religious artifacts suggesting spiritual beliefs. The Neolithic Agricultural Revolution led to permanent settlements and domestication of plants and animals. Early civilizations exhibited complex social structures including cities, governments, religions, social classes, and writing systems.
Human evolution began around 5 million years ago with early human ancestors like Australopithecus afarensis in Africa. Homo habilis who lived around 2 million years ago were the first to make complex tools. Homo sapiens emerged around 200,000 years ago in Africa and spread across the world. Prehistoric human development involved progressing through the Stone Ages including the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods defined by their tool usage and subsistence strategies like hunting and gathering or agriculture. During the later Metal Ages of the Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages, humans transitioned to metal tools and the rise of early civilizations.
The Bronze Age lasted from around 2300 BC to 700 BC. During this time, bronze was widely used to make tools, weapons, and other implements as it was harder than previously used stone. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Cities without natural resources to obtain bronze were forced to trade with those that did have resources. The development of bronze tools and weapons advanced societies politically, economically, socially, and culturally. One influential Bronze Age invention was the chariot, a light two-wheeled vehicle drawn by horses that was used for transportation, hunting, and as a powerful military weapon.
Copy of SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY lesson 1.pptxLuisSalenga1
Ancient humans developed skills and technologies through science to help them survive, even during primitive times. Archeological excavation has uncovered evidence that settlements like Mohenjo-daro used tools and implements as early as 5000-3000 BC, during the Stone Age. Key periods in prehistoric tool development included the Oldowan, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian and microlithic traditions, before the emergence of copper, bronze and iron working eras between 5000 BC and 600 BC that marked major technological advances.
This document provides an overview of science and technology development during prehistoric times from the Stone Age to the Iron Age. It describes how early humans discovered tools like stone tools during different Stone Age periods (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and the four fundamental stone tool traditions that developed. It then discusses the Oldowan, Acheulean, Mousterian, Aurignacian, microlithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age tool technologies and how tools evolved over time from basic stone tools to the use of copper, bronze and eventually iron.
The document summarizes the Stone Age, beginning with the Paleolithic Era from 2.6 million to around 12,000 years ago. During this time, hominins lived in small nomadic bands and subsisted through hunting and gathering, using basic stone and bone tools. Artistic expression first emerged in the Paleolithic as well. Toolmaking became more advanced over time, with Oldowan tools giving way to more sophisticated Acheulean hand axes and prepared core techniques in the Middle Paleolithic. The Upper Paleolithic saw modern humans innovating with blade tools, cave art, and the domestication of dogs. Language, art, tools, fire, and other technological and cultural developments helped Paleolithic people
1. This document provides an overview of prehistory from the earliest humans to the development of writing. It describes the main periods of prehistory including the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Metal Ages.
2. Key developments discussed include the emergence of bipedalism and tool-making in the Palaeolithic, the transition to agriculture and permanent settlements in the Neolithic, and the introduction of copper, bronze and iron tools in the Metal Ages.
3. The document also summarizes important cultural aspects such as cave paintings, rock art, megalithic structures, and the social and economic changes that occurred as prehistoric societies evolved.
ME8491 ENGINEERING METALLURGY - UNIT 1karthi keyan
The document discusses the iron-carbon phase diagram and the different phases that appear on it. It defines the common structures seen on the diagram including ferrite, pearlite, austenite, cementite, martensite, and ledeburite. It provides details on their composition, crystal structure, properties, and how they form based on the cooling process. Understanding these structures is fundamental to materials science and engineering as the microstructure of steels and cast irons determines their overall properties and applications.
1. Prehistory is divided into the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age. During the Stone Age (Paleolithic and Neolithic periods), humans lived as hunter-gatherers and began farming, respectively.
2. The Neolithic period saw the rise of permanent settlements as people transitioned to an agricultural lifestyle. Megalithic structures like dolmens and stone circles emerged.
3. During the Metal Ages, people developed new technologies using copper, bronze, and iron. Trade increased and complex societies with specialized labor developed, leading to the formation of early cities.
1. Prehistory is divided into the Stone Age, Neolithic, and Metal Ages based on advances in technology.
2. The Palaeolithic period saw early humans as hunter-gatherers who lived nomadically in tribes and used stone tools. They created cave paintings and portable art.
3. In the Neolithic period, the development of agriculture and livestock domestication led to permanent settlements and the rise of the first villages as people became sedentary producers. Tools were polished stone.
4. The Metal Ages saw the rise of copper, bronze, and iron tools, bringing technological advances and social changes including new trade routes, specialized labor, and a more hierarchical society with wealth inequality. Megal
1. The document provides an overview of prehistory, beginning with the earliest humans over 2.5 million years ago and ending around 3,500 BC with the invention of writing.
2. Prehistory is divided into the Stone Age (lower, middle, upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods) and the Metal Ages (Copper, Bronze and Iron Ages).
3. During the Neolithic period, around 9,000-7,000 years ago, humans transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers and villagers with the development of agriculture and livestock domestication.
- The document discusses early stone tool technologies, beginning with Oldowan tools dated to 3.4 million years ago which were made and used by Australopithecus afarensis.
- Acheulean tools emerged around 1.8 million years ago and were more sophisticated, consisting of bifacial hand axes, cleavers, and picks. These tools spread widely and suggested more advanced cognition among humans.
- Acheulean handaxes are believed to have taken on social significance beyond just functionality, with elaborate examples perhaps serving to display skills or used in mate selection by early humans.
The document summarizes different technological ages from the Stone Age to the present Information Age. It describes key developments and tools for each age, including stone tools in the Stone Age, copper tools in the Copper Age, bronze tools in the Bronze Age, iron tools in the Iron Age, feather pens and ink in the Middle Ages, machines in the Industrial Age, computers and electronics in the Electronic Age, and digital technology and the internet in the current Information Age. The ages progressed from basic stone tools to more advanced metals and now digital technology that shapes modern society.
1. The document provides an overview of the period of prehistory, beginning with the appearance of the first humans over 2.5 million years ago in Africa and ending around 5,500 years ago with the development of writing.
2. Prehistory is divided into the Stone Age periods of the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic based on advances in tool-making technology, as well as the Metal Ages of Copper, Bronze, and Iron.
3. During the Palaeolithic period, humans lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers, lived in caves or temporary shelters, used stone tools, and created cave paintings and portable art. The Neolithic period saw the development of agriculture and
The Bats Cave is located 4km from Zuheros, Spain on top of Cerro de los Murciélagos. It contains artifacts from the Neolithic period around 6,000 years ago when inhabitants lived near the entrance. They made tools, pottery, and personal items and left behind skeletal remains. The cave also contains Paleolithic paintings around 18,000 years old left by earlier inhabitants. It has been an important archaeological site revealing details about climate change and human habitation in the region over thousands of years.
This document summarizes the evolution of technology during prehistory, focusing on the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. During the Paleolithic period, humans were nomadic, lived in caves or cabins, hunted wild animals and used tools made of stone, wood, and bone. In the Neolithic period, humans began farming, domesticated plants, lived in permanent houses, and created pottery, vessels, and bowls. They also started valuing art and spirituality and constructed religious monuments like menhirs and dolmens. Technology developed according to the time period and historical context.
1. This document provides an overview of prehistory, beginning with the earliest humans over 2.5 million years ago and ending around 3,500 BC with the introduction of writing.
2. It divides prehistory into the Stone Age (Lower Paleolithic, Middle Paleolithic, Upper Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic) and Metal Ages (Copper Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age).
3. Key developments included the first humans standing upright and using tools in the Paleolithic, the introduction of agriculture and permanent settlements in the Neolithic, and the use of metals in tool-making during the different Metal Ages.
This document summarizes human prehistory from the Paleolithic era to the Metal Ages. It describes how early humans lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers during the Paleolithic era, making tools from stone, bone, and wood. During the Neolithic era, humans transitioned to a more sedentary agricultural lifestyle, domesticating plants and animals and developing pottery and weaving. Finally, the Metal Ages saw the discovery and increasing use of metals like copper, bronze and iron for tools and weapons, as well as the emergence of specialized jobs like metalworkers and traders.
Prehistory began over 2.5 million years ago with the emergence of the first humans and ended around 3500 BC with the development of writing systems. During this time, humans evolved from hunter-gatherers to early agricultural societies. Prehistory is divided into periods including the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. In the Palaeolithic, humans lived nomadic lifestyles and created tools from stone, bone, and wood. The Neolithic period saw the development of farming and permanent settlements. Metals like copper, bronze, and iron were introduced and new technologies led to social changes and early trade networks and cities.
Prehistoric art (The Stone Age Paleo/Meso/Neolithic period)Ana Barany
The document discusses prehistoric art from the Stone Age, including the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods. During the Paleolithic period, the first pictorial manifestations appeared as humans settled near rivers and lakes. Cave paintings from this time have been found in France and Spain, using natural pigments and stone tools. In the Mesolithic period, art became more geometric and used a restricted range of colors, while the Neolithic period saw the emergence of agriculture and more permanent settlements, along with weaving, megalithic architecture, and early forms of pottery and statuary.
This document provides an overview of early human history from prehistory through the Agricultural Revolution. It defines key terms like prehistory, the Stone Age including the Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age) and New Stone Age (Neolithic Age). The Last Ice Age and how it impacted human migration is described. The development of agriculture, the Agricultural Revolution, is then explained including the first farming methods and domestication of animals. Finally, pros and cons of settled communities are briefly outlined.
In this lesson, you will compare the technology in the art of now and the past. In addition, you will learn and compare the technology and the art in each generation.
This document summarizes different technological ages from Stone Age to Information Age. It describes key developments in each age such as tools transitioning from stone to bronze to iron to machines and modern digital devices. The Stone Age used basic stone tools for hunting and gathering. The Bronze Age saw the development of bronze tools and weapons while the Iron Age introduced iron smelting technology. The Middle Ages brought innovations like clocks and eyeglasses. The Industrial Age was driven by machinery and mass production. The Electronic Age featured calculators and computers. Now, the Information Age is characterized by digital technology and global communication networks.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
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How Do They Make and Use Tools?
1. Chapter 8
How Did They Make and Use Tools?
Technology
Maharani Dian Permanasari
1314011016
Graduate Program in Cultural Resource Management
2. “how were artifacts made and what were they used for?”
“are they artifacts at all?”
Approaches:
• Archaeological
• Scientific analysis of objects
• Ethnographic
• Experimental
• Advice of modern experts in
equivalent technologies
Industrial Archaeology
3. Interpreting the Evidence: Archaeological, Scientific Analysis
“how to distinguish?”
Artifacts
• shaped by humans
• purposely struck off
• characteristic bulges/ bulbs of
percussion
• regular shape
Approaches
Nature-forged
• shaped by nature/ geologically
processed (heat, frost, fall, etc.)
• natural fractures
• irregular scars and no bulb
• crude shape
Interpreting the Evidence: the Use of Ethnographic Analogy
Ethnographic Analogy in identifying tools:
• people tend to use abundantly available
materials for daily, mundane tasks.
• people will invest time and effort into making
implements they will use repeatedly.
• can be used in identifying the precise function
of a particular artifact in a specific level.
• limited to cultures with a similar subsistence
level and same ecological background.
Interpreting the Evidence: Experiments
Two classes of raw materials
used in creating objects:
• unaltered (e.g. flint)
• synthetic (e.g. pottery, metal)
4. Survival of the Evidence (Artifacts)
Timeline: Rise of Life and Artifacts
63 m.y.a
24 m.y.a
2 m.y.a
CENOZOIC ERA
PALEOGENE
QUARTERNARY
NEOGENE
dinosaurs go extinct
Hominis descend from the trees
mammals fill dinosaurs’ shoes
Ice Age begin to grip world
primates appear in the trees
modern humans are born
m.y.a : million years ago
STONE AGE
PALEOLITHIC PERIOD
MESOLITHIC PERIOD
NEOLITHIC PERIOD
AROUND 8000 BC
BRONZE AGE
PYROTECHNOLOGY
AROUND 3400 BC
METALWORK
IRON AGE
OVER THE PERIOD 3000BC TO 1600-1500BC
UNALTERED
SYNTHETIC
5. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
Timeline: Stone Age (est. 2.6 m.y.a. up to 16,000BC)
m.y.a : million years ago
2.5 m.y.a
15,000 y.a
11,000 y.a
PALEOLITHIC
MESOLITHIC
NEOLITHIC
or
OLD STONE AGE
• human used stones which found
in nature and already had
cutting edge for hunting.
• they used tree branches, leaves,
and stones to make shelter for
living.
• they ate plants and meat,
gathered berries. they may have
eaten flesh of dead animals left
b e h i n d by o t h e r l a r g e r
predators.
• they used fire by rubbing stones
together and roasted meat.
or
MIDDLE STONE AGE
• human started to sharpen their
stone tools for hunting.
• they looked for stones (such as
flint) that was harder and could
be sharpened easily.
• they ate started to settle in one
place, but still remain as hunter
and gatherer of meat, fish, nuts,
fruits, and berries.
or
NEW STONE AGE
• group of hunters learned about
agriculture.
• they collected wild crops and
domesticated wild animals.
• by 10,000 years ago they
started to produce grains, fruits,
and vegetables from seeds.
• they made plow out of antlers,
stone and wood, and started to
cultivate the land with the help
of herded animals.
• they used stone mortars and
pestles to grind cereals and
grains.
6. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Extraction
Sources most visible archaeologically: mines and quarries.
1. Mines (Neolithic and later flint mines in northern Europe)
• The basic technology remained fundamentally the same for the later extraction of other materials.
• There are mixture of open-cast and shaft mining, depending on the terrain and seams position.
• There were a variety of clues to the mining techniques (i.e. Rijckholt’s antler picks which was effective against
hard rock).
• Rock faces were sometimes initially broken up by heating with a small fire.
• Some wooden tools have survived at copper mines in the Mitterberg area of the Austrian Alps.
Grimes Graves,
eastern England.
Spiennes,
Belgium.
Krzemionki,
Poland.
Rijckholt,
Netherland.
2. Quarries
• Unfinished objects or abandoned stones helps archaeologists in making technological reconstruction.
Rano Raraku, Easter Island
Unfinished Obelisk, Aswan - Egypt
Rumiqolqa, Peru
7. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Transportation (large stones)
Discoveries of slides and ramps, drag marks inquired the blocks were dragged broad-face down.
• Experiments of accomplishing the dragging:
statue or block tied to a wooden sled, and men are pulling on ropes.
experiment: dragging the obelisk.
http://www.catchpenny.org/mmbuild.html
hieroglyph showing the transportation of a statue of
Prince Djehutihetep, el-Bersheh, Egypt.
8. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
Construction Technique (large stones)
Using examples from Inca stonework (pg. 315), unfinished Greek temple at Segesta (Sicily), Apollo temple in
Didyma (Turkey), Easter Island and Stone Henge (pg. 314).
h#p://www.engineering-‐/melines.com/how/stonehenge/stonehenge_03.asp
9. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Stone Tool Manufacture (smaller stones)
• Mostly made by removing material from a pebble or “core” until the desired shape of the core has been
attained.
• The core is the main implements, but the flakes themselves can be used as knives, scrapers, etc.
• The first recognizable tools are simple choppers and flakes made by knocking pieces off pebbles to obtain
sharp edges.
10. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
Time Period
Time Range
Technology
Lower Paleolithic
2 million – 200,000
Oldowan : stone tools, choppers, flakes.
e.g. Oldowan industry from Olduvai Gorge
5 cm
Acheulian : symmetrical shape, sharp edges.
achieved using a bone hammer.
20 cm
200,000 – 40,000
Mousterian : prepared stone cores used as
raw materials of smaller tools, including
scrapers and points for spears.
100 cm
100,000
Levallois : involved a careful preparation of a
tortoise-shaped core.
Upper Paleolithic
40,000 – 12,000
Gravettian : and later technology made it
possible to remove numerous parallel-sided
blades from a single core.
Mesolithic
12,000 – 10,000
Rise to dominance of microliths (small flints), tiny
stone tools in various shapes in barbed rods,
composite implements of arrow or spears.
Neolithic
10,000
Domestication of plants and animals, and the
rise of agricultural communities.
Bronze & Iron Ages
5,000
Beginning of technology based on metalls:
copper then bronze then iron.
Industrialization
200
Beginning of the industrial age.
Middle Paleolithic
Length of Cutting Edge Produced
300 cm
– 1200
cm
11. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
Technology/ Complexity
Time Period
Lower Paleolithic
Middle Paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic
Mesolithic
Neolithic
Levallois flakes
Acheulian : bifacial/symmetrical tools
Gravettian : blades from a
single core.
Microlith (small flints), tiny stone tools as
composite implements of arrow or spears.
Oldowan : flakes
2 million – 200,000
200,000 – 40,000
Time Range
40,000 – 12,000
12,000 – 10,000
10,000
12. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Some techniques of manufactures can be inferred from traces left on the tools, or observed among the few living
peoples who continue to make stone tools, or from artistic depictions.
In most other cases, there are two principal approaches in experimental archaeology:
1. Stone Tool Replication
• Making exact copies of different types of stone tool – using only the technology available to the original
makers.
• To assess the processes entailed, the amount of time and effort needed, much to the benefit of our
knowledge of ancient stone-knapping.
• Can be used to discover whether certain flint tools had been heated during manufacture.
• To narrow possibilities and points to the most likely method that is being used.
2. Refitting of Stone Tools
• Entails attempting to put tools and flakes back together again.
• Allows us to follow the stages of the knapper’s craft and movements around the site.
• Considerable vertical movement can occur through different layers of site, even where there are no visible
traces of disturbance.
• Provides a dynamic perspective on the spatial distribution of tools, and produces a vivid picture of actual
movement and activity in an ancient site.
13. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
The only direct proof of function is to study the
minute traces, or microwear patterns, that remain
on the original tools. Three ways to identify the
function of stone tools:
• microwear studies (pg. 319)
• further experiments with stone artifacts (pg.
322)
• assessing and analyzing the technology of
Stone Age art (pg. 323)
refitting
microwear
studies
a vivid picture of
prehistoric life
(pg. 322)
14. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Microwear Study (pg. 319)
15. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
CASE STUDY: Refitting and Microwear Studies at Rekem, Belgium (pg. 320-321)
TECHNOLOGY
manufac
ture
repair
aspects
related
use
types
of tool
1. site degree
2. spatial
analysis
discard
Microwear
Refitting
Experiments in
Excavation
16. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Further Experiments with Stone Artifacts (pg. 322)
Lower Paleolithic hand-axe of
Boxgrove, England.
• hand-axe, used by someone
with the relevant skills and
knowledge, is an outstanding
and versatile butchery tool.
Upper Paleolithic stone lamp of
France.
• stone lamp is used as an
ancient lamp of the Inuit
lighting systems.
• determine the amount of light
given out by the ancient
lamps.
Prehistoric minute beads of
pueblos in Arizona.
• attempt to assess the time
needed for making this
necklace.
such experiments help to asses the inherent value of an object through the
amount of work involved in its creation.
17. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Assessing the Technology of Stone Age Art (pg. 323-324)
Cave of Niaux, Pyrenees
• the use of specific mix of
pigments and mineral such as
talc improved the paint’s
adhesion to the wall and
stopped it cracking.
• not only minerals, binders
could also be organic such as
animal and plant oils.
•
•
•
scanning electron microscopy
X-ray diffraction
proton-induced X-ray emission
Cave of Pech Merle, France
• experiment results (“spotted
horse”) indicated that the
entire composition could have
been made in an hour,
supporting the fact that much
rock art was probably done in
intensive bursts by talented
artists.
•
•
infrared film to enhance the
visibility of each pigments
ethnographic observation
together with experiments
18. UNALTERED MATERIALS: STONE
How were stone artifacts extracted, transported, manufactured, and used?
Assessing the Technology of Stone Age Art (pg. 323-324)
La Marche (France)
Technology of the binocular microscope can be
used to great effect in the study of engravings on
stone:
• it can determine the type of tool and stroke
used.
• determine the differences in width and in
transverse section of the lines, and sometimes
the order in which the lines were made.
• technique of making imprint with plasticine or
silicone can shows which lines were engraved
after which.
• varnish replicas of engraved surfaces on
stones can be examined in the scanning
electron microscope, and compared further.
19. French cave of Lascaux
... many other methods of analysis used on stone artifacts have also been applied to other unaltered materials such as bone.
20. OTHER UNALTERED MATERIALS : [Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather], [Wood], [Plant & Animal Fibers]
Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather
deducing techniques
of manufacture
deducing function
archaeological process [to
reveal complexities, sequence,
and tools involved] –case study:
South African site of Kasteelberg
(pg. 324)
experimental archaeology [to
deduce the function] –case
study: antler baton of La
Madeleine, France (pg. 325)
deer shoulder-blade,
Mugharet El Wad, Israel
study of wear patterns [to
deduce efficiency and
manufacturing process
especially about the importance
of organic materials]
microwear studies combined
with experimental archaeology
[to find characteristic traits of
historical artifacts]
points of arrow, San
Bushmen, Kalahari
antler projectile points,
Lower Magdalenian,
northern Spain
21. OTHER UNALTERED MATERIALS : [Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather], [Wood], [Plant & Animal Fibers]
Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather
deducing function – replication
experiment by John Coles
The Clonbrin Leather Shield,
from the Bronze Age (about 13th
Century BC) of Ireland.
Originally made of one piece of
tanned leather (probably ox).
Experiment result stated that the
leather shield was flexible and
deflected the blows of spear or
sword, thus functioned better in
combat rather than bronze
shield.
John Coles’ woodworking experiment in the Somerset Levels (England)
can be seen in pg. 326-327.
22. OTHER UNALTERED MATERIALS : [Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather], [Wood], [Plant & Animal Fibers]
Wood
• Have been used to make tools
as long as stone and bone, if
wood survives in good condition,
it may preserve tool marks to
show how it was worked.
• Waterlogged wood has yielded
the richest information about
woodworking skills. (Experiment
by John and Bryony Coles, page
326-327).
• Can be categorized into small
(tools) and large wooden
objects (e.g. buildings, wheeled
transportation, and watercrafts).
• Investigating watercrafts: archaeological evidences is abundant in the
preserved remains of ships uncovered by underwater archaeology.
• Excavation results showed that vessels of earlier period in the
century were built with planks held together by mortise and tenon
joints.
• The best way to learn how a ship was built and function is to refit and
rebuild the vessel, either a full-size or a scale replica, preferably one
that can be tested on the water.
• Archaeology can demonstrate the presence of boats/crafts even
where no ship remains or artistic depictions exist.
wheel chariot in Assyrian
Relief, 9th Century BC
experimental archaeology:
4th Century BC Greek ship,
Kyrenia, Cyprus
23. OTHER UNALTERED MATERIALS : [Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather], [Wood], [Plant & Animal Fibers]
Plant & Animal Fibers
• These fragile materials survive in very dry
(arid regions –i.e. study of basketry and
cordage as in Egypt) or wet (waterlogged
–i.e. well-preserved workshops of Viking
York in England) condition.
analyzing textiles
how they were made
of what they were made
microwear analysis of fibers
Peruvian textile at Guitarrero Cave (www.archaeology.about.com)
24. OTHER UNALTERED MATERIALS : [Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather], [Wood], [Plant & Animal Fibers]
... how they were made ; of what they were made
Place
Peruvian
Andean
Time Period (circa)
1st Century AD
3000 BC
Technology
Weavings: big vertical loom; big horizontal loom; small loom
for clothing and bags. Material: animal fiber, dyed
Weavings, decoration, cotton textiles
Painted cotton fabrics
Chibca, Colombia
Thebes. Egypt
2000 BC
Weaving workshops in the tomb of Meketre
Kahun. Egypt
1890 BC
Weaving, slinging thread, coloring dye (madder
for red, indigo for blue)
Weaving, spindle, looms. Materials: animal fiber
Viking York, England
Hochdorf, Germany
550 BC
Weaving at Celtic chieftain's tomb
Cayonu, Turkey
7000 BC
White linen fragment made of flax clinging to
an antler tool
Pavlov, Czech
25,000 –
27,000 y.a
Weaving and textiles of flexible basketry on
fired clay
Dzudzuana, Georgia
30,000 y.a
Dyed flax fibers show the existence of colored
twine
25. OTHER UNALTERED MATERIALS : [Bone, Antler, Shell, Leather], [Wood], [Plant & Animal Fibers]
... microwear analysis of fibers
• Different kinds of fracture, damage, and wear leave diagnostic traces
on different classes of fibers.
• Cutting of fibers is easy to identify, and razor-marks are readily
distinguishable from those made by shears or scissors.
• Even where textiles do not survive, they sometimes leave an
impression behind.
• similarly useful information can be derived from the study of imprints
of fabrics, cordage, and basketry that are found on fired clay.
An insole for a child’s shoe of Vindolanda, Northern England.
Soldier’s leg bandage of Vindolanda, Northern England.
26. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
FIRING and PYROTECHNOLOGY
• The whole development of technology –related to synthetic materials- in terms of the control of fire: pyro technology.
• The introduction of the potter’s kiln in pottery-making meant higher temperatures could be achieved, also spurring on
the development of metallurgy.
Mesopotamian dome-shaped kiln
early 4th millennium BC
Egyptian kiln of c. 3000 BC
Greek kiln of c. 500 BC
• Potters’ kiln can control the air-flow and temperatures which lead to metallurgy in Bronze Age and Iron Age.
• Technology of the production of glass and faience appeared with the manufacture of bronze –since a higher
temperature and better control are needed.
27. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
Timeline of Firing Technology
Lower Paleolithic
FIRING and PYROTECHNOLOGY
Middle Paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic
Mesolithic
Neolithic
Teracotta (baked clay)
figurines
Lehringen, Germany
Near East:
construction of special
ovens used both to
parch cereal grains and
to bake bread
(the first construction of
a deliberate facility to
control the conditions
under which the
temperature was
raised)
1. Czech Republic:
Dolni Vestonice, the Black
Venus that may have
been used in some
special rituals
2. Pyrenees
3. North Africa
4. Siberia
Swartkrans Cave, South Africa
1.5 million years ago
200,000 – 40,000
Time Range
26,000 years ago
12,000 – 10,000
c. 8000
28. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
POTTERY
• The lack of pottery vessels before the Neolithic Period is a consequence of the mobile way of life of Paleolithic huntergatherers, for whom heavy containers of fired clay would have been of limited usefulness.
• The introductory of pottery generally seems to coincide with permanent-way-of living, for which durable tools are a
necessity.
• Archaeological field –especially Industrial Archaeology- learns a lot from this almost indestructible artifact, starts from
the pot tempers, how were they made, how were they fired, and also some evidence from ethnography.
Pot Tempers
• The inclusion in the clay –temper- added strength and workability to counteract
any cracking or shringkage during firing.
• The finer the temper, the stronger the pot.
How Were Pots Made?
• The making or ‘throwing’ of pots on a turntable introduced after 3400 BC.
Previously, pots are made by hand in a series of coils or slabs of clay.
• Wheel thrown pots usually have marks left by the fingertips as the potter draws
the outer surface of pots by flat paddles or cloth to paste a smooth finish.
How Were Pots Fired?
• The firing technique can be inferred from certain characteristics of the finished
product. (pg. 334-335)
• The extent of oxidization in a pot is also indicative of firing methods. (pg. 335)
29. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
POTTERY
... How Were Pots Fired?
• The archaeology of kiln sites has contributed much to our knowledge of firing
procedures.
• The development of kiln in design and construction –from the early, crude, clay
forms to technically advanced brick ones which allow higher firing temperaturesensure production throughout the year (reflecting the increasing demands being
made on pottery-making industry).
Evidence from Ethnography
• Pottery making by traditional methods is still widespread in the world, so it is
profitable to pursue ethnoarchaeological studies from the social and commercial
points of view.
• Archaeologists can derive many valuable insights fro ethnoarchaeological work.
• Historical sources and artistic depictions from a number of cultures provide
supplementary data.
figurines of Si Satchanalai and
Sukhothai, central Thailand
30. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
FAIENCE AND GLASS
• The earliest faience (pre-glass) was originated in Predynastic Egypt (before 3000 BC) and used for beads and pendants.
• By about 2500 BC, Mesopotamia was making the first beads of real glass, which have been made with the development
of charcoal furnaces for smelting metal.
• The first real glass vessels have been found in sites of the Egyptian 18th Dynasty, c. 1500 BC; and the earliest known
glass furnace dating to 1350 BC.
• By 700 BC all the principal techniques of making glass had been developed except for glass-blowing –that was finally
achieved in c. 50 BC by the Romans.
• Ancient glass is so rare because it is a reusable material (like metals, unlike pottery), with fragments being melted down
and incorporated into new glass. (pg. 336)
31. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
ARCHAEOMETALLURGY
Non-Ferrous Metals
• The techniques of manufacture of
artifacts made from non-ferrous
materials in archaeometallurgy
can be investigated in
composition approach and
metallographic examination. (pg.
337)
• Non-ferrous materials: copper
(the most important); tin; bronze;
lead; gold; silver; antimony.
• A basic understanding of copper
processes is fundamental to any
study of early technology.
casting by the
lost-wax process
• complicated
shapes are
produced
shaping native/
nugget copper
• hammered
• cut
• polished
annealing native
copper
• heating
• hammering
copper
smelting from
sulphide ores
• more
complicated
than from
carbonate ores
alloying with tin
• to make bronze
smelting the
oxide &
carbonate ores
• brightly colored
melting and
casting
• first: single/
open mold
• later: two-piece
mold
32. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
ARCHAEOMETALLURGY
Alloying
• Alloying can have beneficial effects and represents a great step forward in metallurgical practice. (pg. 337)
• In investigating early metallurgy, one of the most useful techniques is metallographic examination. (pg. 338)
Casting
• This “one-off” method used clay as two-piece mold. When the clay is heated, the melted wax can be poured out; thus the
clay becomes a hollow mold so that molten metal can be poured into it. After the clay casting is broken away, one is left
with a metal copy of the original model. (a great example of casting metal objects in ceramic-molds are bronze ritual
vessels from Shang dynasty, c. 1500 BC). (pg. 342)
• Molds can yield much useful information, and even the broken clay casings of the lost-wax method have occasionally
been preserved.
• Slags studies can also be informative to distinguish copper smelting process from iron production.
• Place of manufacture can also be examined to fully understand the technology of piece-molds, clay models, and cores,
i.e. Hou-Ma, Shaanxi Province, China, dating to 500 BC where extraordinary works of craftsmanship were produced by
the Chinese this way.
33. SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
ARCHAEOMETALLURGY
Silver, Lead, and Platinum
• Lead is very soft with low melting point so was not used for a wide range of purposes.
• Silver are often extracted from lead ores found in nature, this process called cupellation.
• Platinum was being worked in Ecuador in the 2nd century BC and being liked for its hardness and resistance to corossion,
and they often used it in combination with gold.
Fine Metalwork
• By the late Bronze Age of the Aegean around 1500 BC, various wide techniques in metal working were available for
working with non-ferrous metals.
• One method of metal working is plating which bond metals together, e.g. silver with copper, gold with copper, or iron and
steel armor plated in gold that have been invented in late medieval.
Iron and Steel
• Known as being used since 1000 BC, there are several techniques in iron-working, such as: smelting iron, cast iron, and
wrought iron.
• Steel is simply iron with lower percent of carbon than iron, and both are malleable and capable of hardening by cooling.
Study Case of Ethnoarchaeological Experiment of Early Steelmaking in Haya –a Bantu-speaking agricultural people living in
densely populated villages on the western shore of Lake Victoria, Africa. (pg. 345)
34. REMARKS of Chapter 8: Technology
• Stone tools and ceramics dominate the
archaeological record.
• Objects made of organic materials rarely survive,
compared with the previous materials.
• The introduction of pottery in a culture seems to
coincide with the adoption of a sedentary way of life.
• Several approaches that help researchers to
understand how artifacts were made and what they
were used for:
Ethnography; Ethnoarchaeology; Experimental
Archaeology; Microwear Study.
• A large number od stone tools can be produced
while very little raw material is wasted.
• Copper was the most important metal used in early
times.
• The alloying of copper to produce bronze
represents a significant step forward in metallurgical
practice.