Anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. There are several branches of anatomy including regional anatomy, surface anatomy, radiological anatomy, embryology, cytology, histology, and applied or clinical anatomy. The human body can be divided into the axial region, which includes the head, neck, and trunk, and the appendicular region, which includes the limbs. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, while the appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs. Anatomical position, planes, positions and directions are used to describe body structures in a standardized way.
Definition of human anatomy, various terms used in anatomy, planes of human body, various positions of human body, subdivisions of human anatomy, body cavities and regions of human body, conclusion .
The document provides an introduction to human anatomy, including anatomical position, body planes, regions and cavities, directional terms, and movements. It defines anatomy as the study of body structure and relationships. Gross anatomy examines large structures visible to the naked eye, while microscopic anatomy examines minute structures only visible microscopically. The anatomical position is standing erect with palms and feet facing forward. Planes, regions, and cavities divide the body into sections for study. Directional terms describe positions of structures in relation to one another and major planes. Common movements like flexion, extension, and rotation are also defined.
The document discusses various topics in human anatomy. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body and describes its main subdivisions. These include cadaveric anatomy, regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, and living anatomy which can be studied through inspection, palpation, and various medical imaging techniques. It also discusses embryology, histology, surface anatomy, radiographic anatomy, comparative anatomy, and applied anatomy. Finally, it outlines some key anatomical terminology, body positions, planes, and directions as well as movements like abduction, adduction, and rotation.
The document defines and describes the anatomy of the axilla, including its boundaries, contents, and structures that pass through it. The axilla is the region under the arm bounded by the first rib, scapula, and thoracic wall. It contains the axillary vessels and brachial plexus, as well as fat and lymph nodes. Gateways in the posterior wall allow passage of nerves and vessels between the axilla and scapular regions.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body. The document then outlines 11 main subdivisions of anatomy including cadaveric anatomy, living anatomy, embryology, histology, surface anatomy, and radiographic anatomy. It provides examples and brief definitions for many anatomical terms used to describe positions, planes, movements, and structures of the body. Overall, the document serves as a high-level overview of the field of anatomy and common terminology.
This document defines key anatomical terms and concepts. It begins by defining anatomy and introducing anatomical positions and planes. It describes standard anatomical terms like superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior. It then explains the major body cavities including the dorsal, ventral, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities. It concludes by defining the international standard anatomical position used as a reference for describing human body structures.
The document describes the anatomy and function of the diaphragm. It is divided into three parts: the sternal, costal, and lumbar parts. The sternal part arises from the xiphoid process, the costal part from the lower six ribs, and the lumbar part from the lumbar vertebrae. The diaphragm is innervated by the phrenic nerves and contracts during inspiration to flatten its shape and increase the vertical diameter of the thorax. Relaxation of the diaphragm allows expiration to occur as the thorax decreases in size. The diaphragm plays an important role in respiration and separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology, body positions, planes, cavities, and history. It discusses the standard anatomical position of the body and introduces common anatomical terms like anterior/posterior, proximal/distal, and flexion/extension. The major body cavities described are the thoracic cavity containing the lungs and heart, abdominal cavity containing most digestive organs, and pelvic cavity containing urinary and reproductive organs. A brief history of anatomy highlights important early anatomists like Herophilus and Vesalius.
Definition of human anatomy, various terms used in anatomy, planes of human body, various positions of human body, subdivisions of human anatomy, body cavities and regions of human body, conclusion .
The document provides an introduction to human anatomy, including anatomical position, body planes, regions and cavities, directional terms, and movements. It defines anatomy as the study of body structure and relationships. Gross anatomy examines large structures visible to the naked eye, while microscopic anatomy examines minute structures only visible microscopically. The anatomical position is standing erect with palms and feet facing forward. Planes, regions, and cavities divide the body into sections for study. Directional terms describe positions of structures in relation to one another and major planes. Common movements like flexion, extension, and rotation are also defined.
The document discusses various topics in human anatomy. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body and describes its main subdivisions. These include cadaveric anatomy, regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, and living anatomy which can be studied through inspection, palpation, and various medical imaging techniques. It also discusses embryology, histology, surface anatomy, radiographic anatomy, comparative anatomy, and applied anatomy. Finally, it outlines some key anatomical terminology, body positions, planes, and directions as well as movements like abduction, adduction, and rotation.
The document defines and describes the anatomy of the axilla, including its boundaries, contents, and structures that pass through it. The axilla is the region under the arm bounded by the first rib, scapula, and thoracic wall. It contains the axillary vessels and brachial plexus, as well as fat and lymph nodes. Gateways in the posterior wall allow passage of nerves and vessels between the axilla and scapular regions.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body. The document then outlines 11 main subdivisions of anatomy including cadaveric anatomy, living anatomy, embryology, histology, surface anatomy, and radiographic anatomy. It provides examples and brief definitions for many anatomical terms used to describe positions, planes, movements, and structures of the body. Overall, the document serves as a high-level overview of the field of anatomy and common terminology.
This document defines key anatomical terms and concepts. It begins by defining anatomy and introducing anatomical positions and planes. It describes standard anatomical terms like superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior. It then explains the major body cavities including the dorsal, ventral, thoracic, and abdominopelvic cavities. It concludes by defining the international standard anatomical position used as a reference for describing human body structures.
The document describes the anatomy and function of the diaphragm. It is divided into three parts: the sternal, costal, and lumbar parts. The sternal part arises from the xiphoid process, the costal part from the lower six ribs, and the lumbar part from the lumbar vertebrae. The diaphragm is innervated by the phrenic nerves and contracts during inspiration to flatten its shape and increase the vertical diameter of the thorax. Relaxation of the diaphragm allows expiration to occur as the thorax decreases in size. The diaphragm plays an important role in respiration and separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology, body positions, planes, cavities, and history. It discusses the standard anatomical position of the body and introduces common anatomical terms like anterior/posterior, proximal/distal, and flexion/extension. The major body cavities described are the thoracic cavity containing the lungs and heart, abdominal cavity containing most digestive organs, and pelvic cavity containing urinary and reproductive organs. A brief history of anatomy highlights important early anatomists like Herophilus and Vesalius.
The document discusses the anatomy of the nervous system. It describes the surfaces and lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, including the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. It also discusses the ventricle system, including the lateral ventricles, third ventricle, fourth ventricle, and cerebral aqueduct. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem by three peduncles. Several cranial foramina that transmit nerves and vessels are also described.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy of the arm and pectoral region. It describes the origins, insertions, innervations, and actions of muscles like the latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major and minor, serratus anterior, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, brachialis, and coracobrachialis. It also details the fascia, compartments, and structures of the arm, forearm, cubital fossa, and pectoral region including bones, muscles, vessels and nerves.
The thoracic wall is comprised of skin, fascia, muscles and bones. It protects the thoracic viscera and enables breathing movements. The bony thoracic cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs connected to 12 thoracic vertebrae and the sternum. There are three types of ribs: true ribs that connect to the sternum, false ribs that connect to ribs above, and floating ribs that do not connect to other bones. The thoracic vertebrae are distinguished by demifacets on the vertebral bodies. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. Openings in the thoracic wall include the superior inlet bounded by the clavicle, first
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structure, and physiology as the study of body functions. It discusses the different subdivisions of anatomy including gross, microscopic, and regional anatomy. It explains that anatomy and physiology are closely related, as body structure influences function. The document also introduces homeostasis as the body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions and regulate itself through various mechanisms.
The document defines basic anatomical terms like anatomy, physiology, gross anatomy, and microanatomy. It describes the three body planes - transverse, mid-sagittal, and frontal - and explains how they divide the body. It identifies the two main body cavities, ventral and dorsal, and their subdivisions. The ventral cavity contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities, which house the heart, lungs, digestive organs, and reproductive organs. The dorsal cavity contains the cranial and vertebral cavities, housing the brain and spinal cord. It asks questions to test understanding of these concepts.
The turning effect of a force applied to a rotational system at a distance from the axis of rotation. The moment is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance between its line of action and the axis of rotation.
More slides at http://bit.ly/2PIOIQM
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of costal cartilage and ribs. It describes the structure of costal cartilage, including its surfaces, borders and extremities. It also discusses the structure of ribs, including the head, neck, body, angle and tubercle. The document outlines the types of ribs and their attachments. It explains that costal cartilage and ribs help protect organs and allow for expansion of the thoracic cavity during breathing. Common injuries to costal cartilage and ribs like fractures and cartilage separation are also summarized.
This document discusses anatomical terminology and concepts. It defines anatomy as the study of body parts and their relationships. Key anatomical positions and directional terms are described, such as superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior. The document also outlines the 11 organ systems, body cavities and membranes, planes used to divide the body, and various regions of the abdomen. Common medical imaging techniques like CT scans, MRI, ultrasound, and X-rays are briefly explained.
This document provides a chapter outline on surface anatomy, describing prominent anatomical landmarks that can be observed or felt on the external surfaces of the body. It covers surface features of the head and neck, thorax, back, abdomen, upper limbs, gluteal region, and thighs. Key points include descriptions of bones, muscles, blood vessels, and other structures that can be identified by visual inspection, palpation, percussion, or auscultation on the surface of various body regions. The document is intended to familiarize readers with techniques for examining surface anatomy and identifying important anatomical structures.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the thorax. It describes the thorax as being divided into an upper thoracic cavity by the diaphragm, with the skeletal thoracic cage protecting the lungs and heart. It details the bones that make up the thoracic cage including the ribs, sternum and vertebrae. It also describes the openings of the thorax including the superior inlet bounded by the manubrium sternum, first rib and T1 vertebrae and the inferior outlet bounded by the costal margins and T12 vertebra enclosed by the diaphragm.
This document provides an overview of human anatomy. It begins with defining anatomy and tracing the history of its study from ancient Egypt and Greece to modern times. It then outlines the main divisions of anatomy including gross/topographical, microscopic, and developmental anatomy. The key anatomical terms, positions, planes, and body cavities are defined. In particular, it discusses the serous membranes that line body cavities like the pleura and peritoneum, protecting organs and reducing friction. Overall, the document concisely covers the essential concepts in human anatomy.
The document discusses anatomical terminology used to describe body positions, directions, and movements. It defines anatomical position as standing erect with palms and feet facing forward. It describes three major anatomical planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse) that divide the body and axes of rotation. Common anatomical terms are introduced to describe locations in the body such as superior, inferior, medial, lateral, anterior, posterior. Finally, various types of body movements are defined including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and others.
The spinal cord is approximately 45-50 cm long and 2 cm in diameter. It begins at the foramen magnum and terminates around the L1-L2 vertebrae in adults. The spinal cord has ascending tracts that carry sensory information to the brain and descending tracts that carry motor commands from the brain. It is protected by the vertebrae, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and contains gray matter in an H-shaped arrangement surrounded by white matter tracts. Injuries and diseases of the spinal cord can result in sensory and motor deficits depending on the level and severity of the lesion.
This document provides an overview of the diaphragm, including its origin, insertion, nerve supply, blood supply, actions, positions, relations, openings, and development. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is key to respiration. It has three parts of origin and inserts at the central tendon. The phrenic nerve provides motor innervation and thoracic nerves provide some sensory innervation. The document also discusses applied anatomy concepts regarding the diaphragm.
This document describes various positions derived from standing that are used in physical therapy. It discusses 15 specific positions including wing standing, low wing standing, bend standing, and lunge standing. For each position, it outlines the muscle activity involved, effects on the body, and therapeutic applications. The overall purpose is to explain how modifications to the basic standing position can achieve different therapeutic goals through changes in balance, range of motion, or muscle engagement.
This document defines anatomical terminology and positions of the body. It discusses anatomy as the study of structures and physiology as the study of function. Key terms are defined including anatomical position, anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, unilateral/bilateral, superficial/deep, body planes including sagittal, frontal, and transverse, and terms of movement such as flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, supination/pronation, and plantarflexion/dorsiflexion.
The radius has an upper and lower extremity. The upper extremity includes a head, neck, and tuberosity. The head articulates with the humerus and ulna. The lower extremity has triangular articular surfaces for the carpus and ulna. It also has grooves on its dorsal surface for tendons. The shaft is narrower proximally than distally and has borders for muscle attachments.
This document discusses the anatomy of the skull and cranium. It describes the 22 bones that make up the skull, including the 8 bones of the cranium that protect the brain, and the 14 facial bones. It details the neurocranium and viscerocranium, and provides pictures and names of the individual cranial bones. It also discusses the sutures between bones, sinuses in the skull, and fontanelles in infants. Finally, it briefly mentions diseases that can affect the fontanelles such as bulging, sunken, or enlarged fontanelles.
The document describes the ventricular system of the brain, including:
1) It is comprised of the lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricle.
2) Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus and circulates through the ventricles before being reabsorbed into the venous sinuses.
3) The lateral ventricles are located within the cerebral hemispheres and have anterior, body, and posterior horns.
Introduction to Anatomy and Organization of human bodyZENITH PARMAR
The document discusses the history of anatomy and provides an overview of key concepts. It describes Hippocrates as the father of medicine who attributed diseases to natural causes. It also discusses Vesalius, known as the father of modern anatomy, whose work revolutionized the teaching of anatomy for two centuries. Finally, it defines anatomy and physiology and provides classifications and terminology used in anatomy.
This document provides an overview of human anatomy. It discusses that anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body and the relationships between its parts. The main branches of anatomy are gross (macroscopic) anatomy, histology, embryology, regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, functional anatomy, and surface anatomy. It also outlines several important anatomical terms and positions used to describe the human body.
Anatomy is the study of body structures including their location, size, color, and shape. It is divided into gross anatomy which examines structures visible to the naked eye, microscopic anatomy which examines cells and tissues under a microscope, developmental anatomy which studies growth and development, pathological anatomy which examines diseased tissues, and systemic anatomy which examines body systems.
Physiology is the study of normal body function at the molecular, cellular, and systemic levels. It includes the functions of organs like the liver and the relationships between functions and the body. Physiology is also divided into plant/human physiology, molecular/cellular physiology, and systemic physiology.
Anatomical terms are used to describe positions in the body including anterior/posterior
The document discusses the anatomy of the nervous system. It describes the surfaces and lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, including the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. It also discusses the ventricle system, including the lateral ventricles, third ventricle, fourth ventricle, and cerebral aqueduct. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem by three peduncles. Several cranial foramina that transmit nerves and vessels are also described.
This document provides an overview of the anatomy of the arm and pectoral region. It describes the origins, insertions, innervations, and actions of muscles like the latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major and minor, serratus anterior, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, brachialis, and coracobrachialis. It also details the fascia, compartments, and structures of the arm, forearm, cubital fossa, and pectoral region including bones, muscles, vessels and nerves.
The thoracic wall is comprised of skin, fascia, muscles and bones. It protects the thoracic viscera and enables breathing movements. The bony thoracic cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs connected to 12 thoracic vertebrae and the sternum. There are three types of ribs: true ribs that connect to the sternum, false ribs that connect to ribs above, and floating ribs that do not connect to other bones. The thoracic vertebrae are distinguished by demifacets on the vertebral bodies. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. Openings in the thoracic wall include the superior inlet bounded by the clavicle, first
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structure, and physiology as the study of body functions. It discusses the different subdivisions of anatomy including gross, microscopic, and regional anatomy. It explains that anatomy and physiology are closely related, as body structure influences function. The document also introduces homeostasis as the body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions and regulate itself through various mechanisms.
The document defines basic anatomical terms like anatomy, physiology, gross anatomy, and microanatomy. It describes the three body planes - transverse, mid-sagittal, and frontal - and explains how they divide the body. It identifies the two main body cavities, ventral and dorsal, and their subdivisions. The ventral cavity contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities, which house the heart, lungs, digestive organs, and reproductive organs. The dorsal cavity contains the cranial and vertebral cavities, housing the brain and spinal cord. It asks questions to test understanding of these concepts.
The turning effect of a force applied to a rotational system at a distance from the axis of rotation. The moment is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance between its line of action and the axis of rotation.
More slides at http://bit.ly/2PIOIQM
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of costal cartilage and ribs. It describes the structure of costal cartilage, including its surfaces, borders and extremities. It also discusses the structure of ribs, including the head, neck, body, angle and tubercle. The document outlines the types of ribs and their attachments. It explains that costal cartilage and ribs help protect organs and allow for expansion of the thoracic cavity during breathing. Common injuries to costal cartilage and ribs like fractures and cartilage separation are also summarized.
This document discusses anatomical terminology and concepts. It defines anatomy as the study of body parts and their relationships. Key anatomical positions and directional terms are described, such as superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior. The document also outlines the 11 organ systems, body cavities and membranes, planes used to divide the body, and various regions of the abdomen. Common medical imaging techniques like CT scans, MRI, ultrasound, and X-rays are briefly explained.
This document provides a chapter outline on surface anatomy, describing prominent anatomical landmarks that can be observed or felt on the external surfaces of the body. It covers surface features of the head and neck, thorax, back, abdomen, upper limbs, gluteal region, and thighs. Key points include descriptions of bones, muscles, blood vessels, and other structures that can be identified by visual inspection, palpation, percussion, or auscultation on the surface of various body regions. The document is intended to familiarize readers with techniques for examining surface anatomy and identifying important anatomical structures.
The document provides an overview of the anatomy of the thorax. It describes the thorax as being divided into an upper thoracic cavity by the diaphragm, with the skeletal thoracic cage protecting the lungs and heart. It details the bones that make up the thoracic cage including the ribs, sternum and vertebrae. It also describes the openings of the thorax including the superior inlet bounded by the manubrium sternum, first rib and T1 vertebrae and the inferior outlet bounded by the costal margins and T12 vertebra enclosed by the diaphragm.
This document provides an overview of human anatomy. It begins with defining anatomy and tracing the history of its study from ancient Egypt and Greece to modern times. It then outlines the main divisions of anatomy including gross/topographical, microscopic, and developmental anatomy. The key anatomical terms, positions, planes, and body cavities are defined. In particular, it discusses the serous membranes that line body cavities like the pleura and peritoneum, protecting organs and reducing friction. Overall, the document concisely covers the essential concepts in human anatomy.
The document discusses anatomical terminology used to describe body positions, directions, and movements. It defines anatomical position as standing erect with palms and feet facing forward. It describes three major anatomical planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse) that divide the body and axes of rotation. Common anatomical terms are introduced to describe locations in the body such as superior, inferior, medial, lateral, anterior, posterior. Finally, various types of body movements are defined including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and others.
The spinal cord is approximately 45-50 cm long and 2 cm in diameter. It begins at the foramen magnum and terminates around the L1-L2 vertebrae in adults. The spinal cord has ascending tracts that carry sensory information to the brain and descending tracts that carry motor commands from the brain. It is protected by the vertebrae, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and contains gray matter in an H-shaped arrangement surrounded by white matter tracts. Injuries and diseases of the spinal cord can result in sensory and motor deficits depending on the level and severity of the lesion.
This document provides an overview of the diaphragm, including its origin, insertion, nerve supply, blood supply, actions, positions, relations, openings, and development. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is key to respiration. It has three parts of origin and inserts at the central tendon. The phrenic nerve provides motor innervation and thoracic nerves provide some sensory innervation. The document also discusses applied anatomy concepts regarding the diaphragm.
This document describes various positions derived from standing that are used in physical therapy. It discusses 15 specific positions including wing standing, low wing standing, bend standing, and lunge standing. For each position, it outlines the muscle activity involved, effects on the body, and therapeutic applications. The overall purpose is to explain how modifications to the basic standing position can achieve different therapeutic goals through changes in balance, range of motion, or muscle engagement.
This document defines anatomical terminology and positions of the body. It discusses anatomy as the study of structures and physiology as the study of function. Key terms are defined including anatomical position, anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, unilateral/bilateral, superficial/deep, body planes including sagittal, frontal, and transverse, and terms of movement such as flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, supination/pronation, and plantarflexion/dorsiflexion.
The radius has an upper and lower extremity. The upper extremity includes a head, neck, and tuberosity. The head articulates with the humerus and ulna. The lower extremity has triangular articular surfaces for the carpus and ulna. It also has grooves on its dorsal surface for tendons. The shaft is narrower proximally than distally and has borders for muscle attachments.
This document discusses the anatomy of the skull and cranium. It describes the 22 bones that make up the skull, including the 8 bones of the cranium that protect the brain, and the 14 facial bones. It details the neurocranium and viscerocranium, and provides pictures and names of the individual cranial bones. It also discusses the sutures between bones, sinuses in the skull, and fontanelles in infants. Finally, it briefly mentions diseases that can affect the fontanelles such as bulging, sunken, or enlarged fontanelles.
The document describes the ventricular system of the brain, including:
1) It is comprised of the lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricle.
2) Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus and circulates through the ventricles before being reabsorbed into the venous sinuses.
3) The lateral ventricles are located within the cerebral hemispheres and have anterior, body, and posterior horns.
Introduction to Anatomy and Organization of human bodyZENITH PARMAR
The document discusses the history of anatomy and provides an overview of key concepts. It describes Hippocrates as the father of medicine who attributed diseases to natural causes. It also discusses Vesalius, known as the father of modern anatomy, whose work revolutionized the teaching of anatomy for two centuries. Finally, it defines anatomy and physiology and provides classifications and terminology used in anatomy.
This document provides an overview of human anatomy. It discusses that anatomy is the study of the structure of the human body and the relationships between its parts. The main branches of anatomy are gross (macroscopic) anatomy, histology, embryology, regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, functional anatomy, and surface anatomy. It also outlines several important anatomical terms and positions used to describe the human body.
Anatomy is the study of body structures including their location, size, color, and shape. It is divided into gross anatomy which examines structures visible to the naked eye, microscopic anatomy which examines cells and tissues under a microscope, developmental anatomy which studies growth and development, pathological anatomy which examines diseased tissues, and systemic anatomy which examines body systems.
Physiology is the study of normal body function at the molecular, cellular, and systemic levels. It includes the functions of organs like the liver and the relationships between functions and the body. Physiology is also divided into plant/human physiology, molecular/cellular physiology, and systemic physiology.
Anatomical terms are used to describe positions in the body including anterior/posterior
Anatomy is the study of the structure and relationships between body parts. It comes from the Greek word for "cutting apart" or dissection. There are several subdivisions and specialties within anatomy including gross anatomy, histology, embryology, and neuroanatomy. Gross anatomy involves the visible dissection and study of the human body and its organs. Other areas like histology use microscopy to examine tissues, cells, and structures too small to be seen with the naked eye. Anatomy provides the foundation for medical knowledge and uses specific terminology derived from Greek and Latin to describe body parts, structures, and their spatial relationships.
This document provides an overview of human anatomy, including its various subdisciplines and terminology. It defines human anatomy as the study of the structure of the human body through various methods like dissection, microscopy, and radiology. It also describes regional anatomy, surface anatomy, radiological anatomy, embryology, cytology, histology, and applied/clinical anatomy. Key anatomical planes and directions are defined. The axial and appendicular regions of the skeletal system are introduced.
This document provides an overview of anatomical and physiological concepts. It discusses how anatomy studies the normal structure of the human body while physiology focuses on the body's functions. The body is organized into different levels including chemical, cellular, tissue and organ levels. For simplicity, the body is also divided into nine organ systems. Key anatomical terms are defined such as anatomical position, planes, sections and directions. Common positions like supine, prone and lithotomy are described. The document also outlines terms used to describe movement including flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. Finally, it briefly introduces the body cavities and their functions in protecting organs and allowing organ movement.
The three main approaches to studying anatomy are regional anatomy, systemic anatomy, and clinical anatomy. Regional anatomy focuses on specific parts of the body, systemic anatomy studies the organ systems, and clinical anatomy emphasizes applying anatomical knowledge to medicine. The document then discusses various anatomical terms including anatomical position, planes, and terms related to location, movement, and laterality.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy. It defines anatomy as the study of the structure of the body and discusses its various divisions including gross, microscopic, regional, systemic and radiological anatomy. The objectives of anatomy are also outlined. Key terms used to describe anatomical positions like anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, superior/inferior are introduced. The document also briefly discusses anatomical planes, body types, and anatomical terminology used in the field.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology and concepts. It begins by defining anatomy and its history. It then discusses anatomical position, planes of the body, and regional terminology. The three main body planes - sagittal, frontal, and transverse - are introduced. Common anatomical terms are defined including various prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Key body regions and cavities are outlined. Movement terminology is reviewed including flexion, extension, and rotation. Finally, the abdominal quadrants and regions used in clinical practice are described.
1. cpp introduction to anatomy 2020 Dr.GamalJohn Diggle
This document provides an overview of general anatomy concepts including:
- Anatomy is the study of body structure and relationships between parts through dissection.
- Gross anatomy studies structures visible to the naked eye including surface, regional, and systemic anatomy.
- The anatomical position is used as a reference to describe body positions and structures.
- Anatomical planes and axes are used to describe body positions and motions.
- Common anatomical terms are defined including positions, movements, and directions related to the body.
This document provides an overview of human anatomy. It discusses that anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy, microscopic anatomy (histology), developmental anatomy (embryology), and specialized branches. Gross anatomy studies body regions and systems. Developmental anatomy examines pre-birth developmental changes. Microscopic anatomy looks at cells, tissues, and sub-cellular structures. The document also covers basic anatomical terminology including positions, directions, planes, and movements.
This document discusses different aspects of anatomy including:
1. Gross anatomy which is the study of structures visible to the naked eye.
2. Microscopic anatomy which includes histology, the study of cells and tissues, and cytology, the study of cells.
3. Other fields are developmental anatomy, pathological anatomy, and radiographic anatomy.
Anatomy can also be studied through systemic, regional, and surface approaches. Directional terms like superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior are used to describe locations of structures in the body.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy, covering its history, definitions, subdivisions, and basic terminology. It discusses how anatomy has evolved since ancient times when scientists first experimented on cadavers. Anatomy is defined as the study of body structures and their relationships. The major subdivisions are gross (regional and systemic), microscopic (cytology and histology), and developmental anatomy. Basic terminology includes anatomical directions like superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, and anatomical planes like sagittal, frontal, and transverse. Students will gain understanding of medical terminology and anatomy of various body regions and systems.
This document provides an introduction to human anatomy, covering its history, definitions, subdivisions, and basic terminology. It discusses how anatomy has evolved since ancient times when scientists first experimented on cadavers. Anatomy is defined as the study of body structures and their relationships. The major subdivisions are gross (regional and systemic), microscopic (cytology and histology), and developmental anatomy. Basic terminology includes anatomical directions like superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, and anatomical planes like sagittal, frontal, and transverse. Students will gain understanding of medical terminology and anatomy of various body regions and systems.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology used to describe the structure and position of the human body. It defines anatomy as the study of the body's structure, both at the macro and microscopic level. Key terms are introduced to describe the body's position, planes that divide the body, sections that can be cut through the body, and directional terms like anterior, posterior, superior, and inferior. The document also outlines various anatomical subdisciplines and approaches to studying anatomy regionally or systemically. Finally, it defines specific terminology used for anatomical movements like flexion, extension, abduction, and rotation.
Radiographic positioning terminology By A.H Nelson Medical PhysicistHarvin Nelson
This document provides an overview of radiographic positioning terminology and concepts. It defines common anatomical terms used to describe body positions, planes, and radiographic views. It also covers bone development, classification, and features. Key points include:
- Standard terminology is used to describe patient positioning for radiographs, including terms for anatomical positions, body planes, movements, and projections.
- The human skeleton consists of 206 bones that are classified as long, short, flat, irregular, or sesamoid based on their shape.
- Bones develop through two processes - intramembranous ossification forms flat bones, while endochondral ossification forms long, short, and irregular bones via primary and secondary centers of
Dr. Enas Anwar is a lecturer of anatomy and embryology. The document defines anatomy and its parts, anatomical terms, positions of the body, anatomical planes, and anatomical movements. It identifies anatomy as the study of the structure of the body and defines terms like anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, and distal. It describes the anatomical position as standing erect with arms at sides and eyes and palms facing forward. It also outlines common anatomical movements like flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, elevation, and depression.
This document defines anatomical terminology and concepts including:
- Anatomical positions like supine, prone, and anatomical
- Planes of motion like sagittal, frontal, and transverse
- Directional terms like superior, inferior, anterior, posterior
- Movement terms like flexion, extension, abduction, adduction
- Clinical anatomy terms like inflammation, edema, necrosis
- Descriptive terms for bones, muscles, vessels
- Arrangement of structures from within outward like bones, muscles, vessels, organs, fascia, skin.
This document provides an overview of anatomical terminology used to describe the human body. It begins by defining the standard anatomical position as standing upright with arms at the sides and palms facing forward. It then covers terms used for position and direction, such as anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, and distal. Movement terms like flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, pronation, and supination are also defined. The document aims to give students an understanding of anatomical terminology as it relates to the structure and movement of the human body.
1. The document discusses various anatomical terminology used to describe the positioning and planes of the human body.
2. The anatomical position refers to how the body is positioned standing upright with hands at the sides and feet flat.
3. There are four main anatomical planes - median, sagittal, frontal, and transverse - which are used to describe the sections and locations of structures.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
PPT on Direct Seeded Rice presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
Sexuality - Issues, Attitude and Behaviour - Applied Social Psychology - Psyc...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Travis Hills of MN is Making Clean Water Accessible to All Through High Flux ...Travis Hills MN
By harnessing the power of High Flux Vacuum Membrane Distillation, Travis Hills from MN envisions a future where clean and safe drinking water is accessible to all, regardless of geographical location or economic status.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
GBSN - Biochemistry (Unit 6) Chemistry of Proteins
Introduction to anatomy
1. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
ANATOMY
Definition:
Anatomy is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of
organisms and their parts (microscopy) while macroscopically study is called as gross
anatomy.
It is defined as an important scientific discipline which is concerned with the
investigation of biological structure by:
i. Dissection
ii. Micro-dissection
iii. Light Microscopy
iv. Electron Microscopy
v. Radiology
Regional Anatomy:
It deals with anatomy of various structures as they lie in relationship with one
another in different regions of the body. It is valuable for surgeons.
Surface Anatomy:
It deals with the study and identification of various structures in living persons by
methods of inspection and palpation (feel area with hand). It helps to enhance the
knowledge acquired through dissection of the cadaver (bones, corpse, carcass, corpus,
[archaic], relics, remains, stiff) by either of line of study, regional or systematic. It is helpful
both in health and disease and it is daily used in medical practice.
Riological Anatomy:
It is study of structure of human body with the aid of x-rays. It helps to investigate
the anatomical facts which cannot be understood by any other method. It is very useful in
both health and disease and is in current use in modern medical practice.
Embryology:
It is study of various changes in the developing organism from the fertilization of
ovum up to the birth of the body.
Cytology:
It is the study of cells by various biological methods.
Histology:
2. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
It is the study of various tissues by various scientific methods (microscopy;
histochemistry).
Applied or Clinical Anatomy:
It is the direct application of facts of human anatomy to medicine and surgery. The
students are advised to lay the stress on applied aspect while they’re studying gross
anatomy in dissection hall.
Systematic Anatomy:
The description of several systems of organs separately and in logical order
consume under the head of systematic anatomy. The several parts of each system not only
show a certain similarity of structure but are also associated in specialized functions.
Anatomical Position:
During the Renaissance (“Rebirth”) the study of human life and medicine began to
flourish.
Scientist, Doctors and Artist would experiment and practice on the dead and
incarcerated.
Cadavers were positioned flat on their backs, thus making it easier to draw and
reference from that position.
Many artists such as Leonardo da Vinci began to study, draw and diagram the
human body.
Anatomical Position Definition:
It is a specific body condition in which an individual standing erect, with palms and
feet facing forward flat on the floor.
The head is level, and the eyes look forward towards the observer.
The arms at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs
pointing away from the body.
It is the standard reference point in which all positions, movements, and planes are
described.
Positions and Directions:
Following are the terms of position and direction describe the position of one body
part relative to another, usually along one of the three major body planes:
1. Relative to Head and Tail of body:
Superior: Refers to a structure being closer to the head or higher than another
structure in the body.
3. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Inferior: Refers to a structure being closer to the feet or lower than another
structure in the body.
Caudal: At the rear of tail end.
Cranial: At the head end.
2. Relative to Front (Belly Side) or Back of the body:
Anterior: Refers to a structure being more in front than another structure in the
body.
Posterior: Refers to a structure being more in back than another structure in the
body.
Ventral: Towards the front or belly (you Vent out or your nose and mouth).
Dorsal: Towards the back (like the Dorsal fin of a dolphin).
3. Relative to Midline or Centre of Body:
Medial: Refers to a structure being closer to the midline or median plane of the body
than another structure of the body.
Lateral: Refers to a structure being farther away from the midline than another
structure of the body.
Superficial: Refers to a structure being closer to the surface of the body than
another structure (Superficial and deep are related to cavity).
Deep: Refers to a structure being closer to the core of the body than another
structure (e.g. heart is superficial, esophagus is deep).
4. Relative to Point of Attachment of Appendages:
Distal (Reference to the extremities only): Refers to a structure being further away
from the root of the limb than another structure in the limb.
Proximal (Reference to the extremities only): Refers to a structure being closer to
the root of the limb than another structure in that limb.
When you divide the skeleton into Axial and Appendicular you can better
understand the extremities and their roots.
4. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
5. Some Other Positions of Body:
Prone: Lying face down
Supine: Lying face up
Unilateral: Pertaining to one side of the body
Bilateral: Pertaining to both sides of the body
Anatomical Planes:
A plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific sections.
These are the fixed lines of reference along which the body is often divided or
sectioned to facilitate viewing of its structures.
5. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
They allow one to obtain a three-dimensional perspective by studying the body
from different views.
1. Sectional (Frontal, Coronal) Plane:
This is a vertical plane that divides the body into front and back portions.
2. Transverse (Cross-sectional / Horizontal) Plane:
The horizontal planes divide the body into upper (superior – upper) and lower
(inferior - lower) portions.
3. Sagittal (extends through) Plane:
This plane divides the body into right and left portions.
Mid-sagittal or median are names for the plane dividing the body into equal right
and left halves.
A plane that is parallel to mid-sagittal plane, but either to the left or right is called
minor plane (oblique plane – passes through an angle)
6. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
REGIONS OF BODY
The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and
appendicular regions.
The axial region includes the head, neck, and trunk which comprise the main vertical
axis of our body.
Our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and make up the appendicular
region.
7. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Skeletal System:
The axial skeleton is composed of the bones along the central axis of the body:
The skull
The vertebral column
The thoracic cage
The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the appendages:
Upper and lower limbs
The bones that hold the limbs to the trunk of the body.
(Axial Skeleton) (Appendicular Skeleton)
8. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
MOVEMENTS
Flexion: Bending a joint or decreasing the angle between two bones e.g. in the fetal
position we are flexing our joints
Extension: Straightening a joint or increasing the angle between two bones e.g. in
the Anatomical position we are extending our joints
Hyperextension: Excessive extension of the parts at a joint beyond anatomical
position.
9. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
10. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Adduction: Moving a body part towards the midline of the body.
Abduction: Moving a body part away from the midline of the body.
Pronation: Turning the arm or foot downward (palm or sole of the foot - down) e.g.
Prone
Supination: Turning the arm or foot upward (palm or sole of the foot - up) e.g.
Supine
11. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Retraction: Moving a part backward
Protraction: Moving a part forward
Elevation: Raising a part
Depression: Lowering a part
Rotation: Turning on a single axis
Circumduction: Tri-planar, circular motion at the hip or shoulder
Internal rotation: Rotation of the hip or shoulder toward the midline
External rotation: Rotation of the hip or shoulder away from the midline
12. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Lateral Flexion: Side-bending left or right
Inversion: Turning the sole of the foot inward
Eversion: Turning the sole of the foot outward
Dorsiflexion: Ankle movement bringing the foot towards the shin
Plantar-flexion: Ankle movement pointing the foot downward
Radial Deviation: Movement of the wrist towards the radius or lateral side.
Ulnar Deviation: Movement of the wrist towards the ulna or medial side.
Opposition: Movement of the thumb across the palm of the hand.
Additional Range of Motion:
13. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Range of Motion:
14. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Hip: Abduction
Hip: Adduction
Hip: Flexion
Knee: Extension
Ankle: Plantar-flexion
Wrist: Extension
(A) Hyperextension
(B) Flexion
Knee: Flexion
Ankle: Dorsiflexion
Forearm: (a) Supination
Forearm: (b) Pronation
Shoulder: Circumduction
Shoulder: Elevation
Jaw: Protraction
Shoulder: Rotation
15. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
SKELETON DIVISIONS
There are two divisions of the human skeleton:
Axial:
It is the long axis of the body
It includes bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage.
It is mostly involved in protecting, supporting, or carrying other body parts.
Appendicular:
It includes bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles.
It is involved in free movements.
THE AXIAL SKELETON:
The Skull - Formed by 22 bones
The cranium forms the vault and base of the skull, which protects the brain
The facial skeleton provides openings for the respiratory and digestive passages
and attachment points for facial muscles.
Except for the temporomandibular joints, all bones of the adult skull are joined
by immovable sutures.
16. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Cranium:
The 8 bones of the cranium include
o Paired parietal and temporal bones
o Single frontal, occipital, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
Facial Bones:
The 14 bones of the face include
o Paired are maxillae, zygomatics, nasals, lacrimals, palatines, and inferior
conchae
o Single are mandible and vomer bones
Para-nasal Sinuses:
Mucosa-lined, air-filled sinuses
Clustered around the nasal cavity
Present in frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and paired maxillary bones
Functional aspect:
Air enters the sinuses from the nasal cavity
Mucus formed by the sinus mucosa drains into the nasal cavity.
Lighten the skull
Enhance the resonance of the voice
17. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
18. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Hyoid Bone:
The hyoid bone, supported in the neck by ligaments, serves as an attachment point
for tongue and neck muscles.
The Vertebral Column:
It includes 24 movable vertebrae (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar) and the
sacrum and coccyx.
The fibro-cartilage inter-vertebral discs act as shock absorbers and provide
flexibility to the vertebral column.
19. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
The primary curvatures of the vertebral column are the thoracic and sacral
The secondary curvatures are the cervical and lumbar. Curvatures increase spine
flexibility.
General Structure of Vertebrae:
With the exception of C1 and C2, all vertebrae have a body, 2 transverse processes, 2
superior and 2 inferior articular processes, a spinous process, and a vertebral arch.
The Thoracic Cage:
The bones of the thoracic cage include:
The 12 rib pairs
The sternum
The thoracic vertebrae
The thoracic cage protects the organs of the thoracic cavity.
Sternum:
The sternum consists of the fused manu-brium, body, and xiphoid process.
Ribs:
The first seven rib pairs are called true ribs; the rest are called false ribs. Ribs 11 and
12 are floating ribs.
20. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
APPENDICULAR SKELETON:
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle:
It consists of 1 clavicle and 1 scapula.
It attaches the upper limbs to the axial skeleton
Clavicles:
Hold the scapulae laterally away from the thorax
The sternoclavicular joints are the only attachment points of the pectoral girdle
to the axial skeleton.
Scapulae:
Articulate with the clavicles and with the humerus bones of the arms.
The Upper Limb
Each upper limb is specialized for mobility.
Arm – Humerus
Forearm – Radius and Ulna
Hand - Carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges
21. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
22. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
23. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
The Pelvic (Hip) Girdle:
It is composed of two hip bones that secure the lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
Each hip bone consists of 3 fused bones: Ilium, ischium, and pubis; Acetabulum
occurs at the point of fusion.
Ilium/ischium/pubis:
Ilium forms a joint with the sacrum posteriorly.
Ischium - we sit on the ischial tuberosities.
V-shaped pubic bones articulate anteriorly at the pubic symphysis.
Pelvic Structure and Childbearing:
Male pelvis is deep and narrow
Female pelvis, which forms the birth canal, is shallow and wide.
24. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
The Lower Limb:
Each lower limb consists of the thigh (Femur), leg (Tibia - knee, ankle joints and
Fibula), and foot (Tarsals, meta-tarsals, and phalanges)
It is specialized for weight bearing and locomotion.
25. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton:
Fontanels are present in the skull at birth
Growth of the cranium after birth is related to brain growth
26. University College of Pharmacy,
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Muhammad Muneeb
D16M137
Increase in size of the facial skeleton follows tooth development and enlargement of
nose and sinus cavities.
The vertebral column is C shaped at birth (thoracic and sacral curvatures are
present)
Secondary curvatures form when the baby begins to lift its head and walk.
Long bones continue to grow in length until late adolescence.
Changes in the female pelvis (preparatory for childbirth) occur during puberty.
Once at adult height, the skeleton changes little until late middle age
With old age
Intervertebral discs thin leading to shortened height
Loss of bone mass increases the risk of fractures
Thoracic cage rigidity promotes breathing difficulties